THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 


PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 

MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


THE  RELATION 


OF 


ANIMAL  DISEASES  TO  THE 
PUBLIC  HEALTH, 


AND    THEIR    PREVENTION. 


BY 

FRANK   S.   BILLINGS,   D.  V.  S., 

C&.VOCATB   OF  THE    P.KYAL   VETKRISART   INSTITtTTB  OT   BKSLI.N  ;    MEMRCR   OF  THE    ROYAL    VETEBINART 

ASSOCIATIu:<    OF  THE    PROVINCE   OF   RRAN'DKNBURO  ;    HOJJORART   MEMBER  OF  TUE 

VETERINARY    SOCIETY   OF   MOXTBEAL,    CANADA,    ETC. 


NEW    YORK: 
D.     APPLETOX    AND    COMPANY, 

I,  8,  A!«D  5  BOND  STREET. 
1884. 


COPYKIGHT,   1884, 

By  D.  APPLETON  AOT)  COMPANY. 


IN   MEMORY    OF 

ANDREAS  CnRISTIAN   GERLACII, 

L.VTE    DIRECTOR    OF   THE    ROYAL    VETERINARY    ISSTITI'TE, 
BERLIN,    PRCSSIA, 

TO    WnOSE    EXAMPLE,    LOVE,    AND    SYMPATHY 

THE    ATTIIOR    OWES    WHAT    LITTLE    ABILlfV    HE    POSSESSES, 

THIS   BOOK   IS   AFFKOTIONATELT 

Q tbicattb. 


\ 


710  • 


PEE FACE 


» 


This  book  is  written  for  the  benefit  of  the  people  of  the 
rniteJ  States,  Its  purpose  is  to  intruduce  to  every  thinking 
man  and  woman  of  the  country  a  new  subject,  the  higher  pur- 
poses of  Veterinary  Medicine.  It  is  a  work  which  treats  of  the 
Prevention  of  Diseases,  not  their  Treatment.  AVhile  at  times 
the  language  of  the  author  may  appear  uimecessarily  severe  to 
the  casual  reader,  he  should  not  forget  that  the  author  is  an 
enthusiast ;  that  he  has  given  his  life  and  energies  to  the  sub- 
ject of  the  establishment  of  Veterinary  Science  in  this  country ; 
and  that  the  evils  so  sev^erely  combated  are  not  "  straw  men," 
the  creations  of  a  vivid  imagination,  but  actual  evils  that,  unless 
prevented,  will  work  most  serious  injury  to  the  country  in  the 
not  distant  future.  All  that  the  author  asks  is  calm  reflection 
and  an  honest  verdict  upon  his  work. 


CONTENTS. 


PART   I. 

PAGE 

The  Diseases  of  Domestic  Animals  ......  1 

TrichiniasU  of  Man  and  Animals        ......  2 

The  Intestinal  Trichinae  .  .....        11 

Trichiniasis  in  Swine  .......  15 

Trichina;  in  American  Pork  .  .  .  .18 

Examinations  of  American  Pork      ......  20 

American  llogs  much  more  infected  than  European  .  .  .26 

The  Di.-iease  in  Swine  .......  28 

Prevention  of  Trichiniasis  in  Swine        ......        31 

The  Microscopic  Examination  of  Pork         .....  32 

Objects  which  may  be  mistaken  for  Trichinae,  or  not  recognized  as  such  .        34 

Trichiniasis  in  Man  .......  36 

Prevention  of  the  Disease  in  Man  ......        40 

Hog-Cholera    .  .  .  .  .  .  .  41 

Etiology  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .41 

Bacillus  suis  ........  43 

Influence  of  Season  and  Temperature    ......        44 

Incubation   .........  45 

Pathological  Anatomy  ........        47 

Microscopic  Observations    .......  48 

Prevention  of  the  Disease  .......        50 

Disease  of  Cattle         ......  .52 

Tuberculosis  in  Cattle    .  .  .  .  .  .  .61 

Statistics  as  to  its  Prevalence  .  .  .  .  .  71 

Infection    ..........        74 

Bacteria       .........  79 

Classification  of  Bacteria  .......        80 

Distinction  of  Bacteria  from  Inorganic  Objects        ....  84 

Dissemination  of  Bacteria  in  Different  Media   .  .86 

Nutrition  of  Bacteria  .......  86 

Reproduction  of  Bacteria  .......        88 

Reproduction  by  Spores       .......  89 

The  Action  of  Bacteria  with  reference  to  Contagious  and  Vinilcnt  Disea.scs    .        89 
Dispersion  of  Bacteria  and  their  Entrance  into  the  Animal  Organism  94 

Infection  of  the  Animal  Organism        ......        98 

Disinfection  ........  100 


Vlll 


CONTENTS. 


The  Diseases  of  Domestic  Animals: 
Anthrax  and  Anthracoid  Diseases 

History     ,  .  .  . 

Etiology 

Nature  of  the  Infectious  Elements 

Appearance  and  Extension     . 

Phenomena  of  the  Disease 

Pathological  Anatomy 

Prognosis 

Diagnosis 

Prevention 

Therapeutics  . 

Immunity 
Anthrax  in  Man 

Etiology  .... 

Symptoms  and  Course 

Therapeutics 
Anthracoid  Diseases 
Emphysema  infectiosum 
Texas  Fever  of  Cattle    . 

Definition 

Etiology 

Stages  of  the  Disease 

Phenomena  during  Life 

Post-mortal  Phenomena  . 

Microscopic  Examination 

Prophylaxis 
Diseases  of  the  Dog 
Rabies 
Hydrophobia  in  France 

Phenomena  of  Canine  Eabies 

Prevention 
Diseases  of  the  Horse 
Glanders 

Transmission  to  other  Animals 

Geographical  Distribution 

Etiology    . 

Tenacity  of  the  Contagium     . 

Natural  Infection 

Disposition,  Immunity 

Phenomenology    . 

Duration  of  the  Disease 
Acute  Nasal  Glanders 
Pulmonary  or  Chronic  Glanders 

Pathological  Anatomy 

Infiltrated  Neoplasmatic  Processes 

Diagnosis 

Prognosis 

Prevention 
Glanders  in  Man 

Cause       .  .  .  . 

Acute  Glanders  in  Man 
Chronic  Glanders  in  Man     . 


CONTENTS.  ix 


PART   II. 

PAOK 

History  of  Veterinart  Mepicink              ......  209 

The  Establishment  or  thk  Veterinary  Schools        ....  2t)3 

The  Veterinarv  Schools  of  Friince          ......  2G4 

The  Veterinary  In-ititutc  at  Vienna              .....  280 

Short  Notiees  of  the  Schools  of  Belgium,  Sweden,  Russia,  and  Norwny            .  2'.)1 

The  Schools  of  Germany      .......  29!» 

Stuttgart        .........  2t'9 

Ilanover  .........  30t 

Munich           .........  308 

The  Veterinary  Institutions  of  Prussia            .....  321 

The  Prussian  Laws  for  Suppression  of  Contagious  Animal  Diseases        .  .310 

The  Laws  and  Regulations  for  Rinderpest  .             .             .             .             .  311 

Special  Regulations  to  prevent  the  Introduction  of  the  Rinderpest  from 

Foreign  Countries  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .34-3 

Regulations  with  reference  to  Rinderpest  in  Germany    .             .             .  344 
Regulations  to  be  put  in  force  after  the  Rinderi)est  has   been  declared 

ended          .........  347 

Restrictions  with  reference  to  Use  of  Animals  having  Contagious  Diseases  350 

Anthrax          .........  851 

Contagious  Plcuro-pneumonia      ......  355 

Glanders         .........  367 

Variola  of  Sheep  ........  360 

Rabies  .  .  .    "        .  .  .362 

Disinfectants        ........  864 


PART  III. 

The  Means  of  Prevention  .......      368 

A  National  Veterinary  Police  System  ......  368 

The  Foundation  of  Veterinary  Schools  in  the  United  States         .  .  .      390 

State  Veterinary  School.^  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  415 

A  National  Veterinarv  Institute    .  .  .  .  .  .  .419 


IlYER^ri. 


:s££ooz  r^ 


PART  I. 
THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  AK'BIALS. 


TuE  subject  of  the  relation  of  animal  diseases  to  the  public 
health,  while  not  by  any  means  unknown  to  hygienists,  is  still  one 
whicli  has  not  until  the  last  few  ycai"s  attracted  the  scientific  study 
which  its  importance  demands.  This  is  mainly  due  to  the  practical 
tendency  which  has  prevailed  in  all  veterinary  schools,  and  which 
has  been  pushed,  to  the  undue  neglect  of  scientific  investigation. 
Thankfully,  the  day  of  the  school  empiric  is  fast  drawing  to  a  close, 
and  the  rising  sun  of  scientific  research  is  beginning  to  dispel  the 
fogs  of  tradition  and  the  apathy  of  self-content  which  has  rested 
upon  veterinary  medicine. 

The  day  has  come  when  veterinary  medicine  is  beginning  to 
make  its  power  felt,  and  to  take  its  tnie  place  as  a  scientific  institu- 
tion among  the  nations  of  the  world. 

We  have  all  been  taught  that  the  first  commandment  is  "to 
have  no  other  gods  besides  me."  But  without  desiring  to  enter 
into  the  discussion  of  religious  questions,  the  hygienist  may  say 
that,  while  this  may  be  very  important  to  the  spiritual  man,  the 
earthy  man  has  also  certain  positive  responsibilities  to  himself, 
which  find  their  expression  in  the  command,  "  Man,  know  thyself." 
This  commandment  seems  to  be  a  stranger  to  the  minds  of  most 
men,  for  how  little  do  wo  know  of  the  physiological  laws  which 
control  that  complicated  machine,  the  animal  organism,  or  of  the 
means  by  which  we  can  in  a  large  measure  prevent  diseases,  not 
only  among  ourselves,  but  among  our  animals!  The  majority  of 
our  people  assume  that  the  nucleus  of  all  knowledge  is  to  be  found 
somewhere  in  that  record  of  Jewish  history,  the  Christian  Bible. 

"With  reference  to  the  prevention  of  human  diseases  from  causes 
to  be  sought  in  the  animal  world,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  we 
find,  however,  but  little  of  practical  value  in  that  book.     The  in- 


2  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

structions  of  Moses  to  the  Jews  have  far  more  to  do  with  certain 
superstitions  ideas  of  the  cleanliness  or  uncleanliness  of  certain  spe- 
cies of  animals  as  unfitting  them  for  food  than  with  any  true 
knowledge  of  their  non-hygienic  character.  Enthusiastic  but  blind 
worshipers  have  even  gone  so  far  as  to  assert  that  Moses  must  have 
known  that  trichinae  existed  in  pork,  hence  his  forbidding  its  use 
as  food.  But  they  do  not  stop  to  think  that  these  parasites  require 
a  microscope  for  their  detection,  an  instrument  which  was  not  known 
to  man  until  thousands  of  years  after  the  books  of  Moses  were  writ- 
ten. That  the  flesh  of  diseased  animals  was  unfit  for  human  food 
did  not  entirely  escape  the  attention  of  the  Israelitic  legislator ;  but 
his  restrictive  utterances  were  limited  to  his  own  people.  He  tells 
the  chosen  of  the  Lord  that :  "  Ye  shall  not  eat  of  anything  that 
dieth  of  itself ;  thou  shalt  give  it  unto  the  stranger  that  is  in  thy 
gates,  that  he  may  eat  it  j  or  thou  may  est  sell  it  unto  an  alien  j  for 
thou  art  an  holy  jpeojple  unto  the  Lord  thy  GodP — See  Deut.  xiv,  21. 

Numerous  passages,  which  command  that  all  blood  must  be  re- 
moved from  the  body  before  using  it,  lead  us  to  infer  that  all  such 
articles  were  to  be  well  cooked  before  being  eaten,  and  that  raw  or 
underdone  meats  were  an  abomination  to  the  Jews,  as  they  should 
be  to  all  people. 

Plutarch  asks :  "Why  is  it  that  the  priests  of  Jupiter  are  forbid- 
den to  touch  raw  flesh  ? "  And  answers :  "  Raw  flesh  is  no  more  a 
living  creation,  and  is  unfit  to  eat.     Cooking  gives  it  another  form." 

]^ot  only  is  human  life  endangered  by  the  consumption  of  prod- 
ucts from  previously  diseased  animals,  or  from  the  consumption  of 
improperly  cooked  flesh,  but  quite  a  number  of  animal  diseases  are 
capable,  by  intentional  or  accidental  means,  of  transmission  to  man. 
Yirchow  has  said  that  "  man  is  far  more  susceptible  to  infection 
from  animal  diseases  than  the  latter  from  similar  diseases  of  man." 


TRICHINIASIS   OF  MAN  AND  ANIMALS. 

There  is,  perhaps,  no  one  disease  of  our  domestic  animals  which 
enjoys  a  more  sensational  reputation,  or  which  has  been  more  thor- 
oughly investigated,  than  the  disease  of  swine  caused  by  the  parasite 
trichina  spiralis.  There  is  none  more  worthy  of  the  attention  of  the 
public  or  the  hygienist.     Although  the  literature*  treating  upon 

*  The  American  student  will  find  the  best  compilation  that  exists  on  this  subject  in 
the  "  Report  on  Trichinge  and  Trichinosis,"  Glazier.  1881.  Published  by  the  United 
States  Marine-Hospital  Service. 


TRICniXIASIS  OF  MAN  AND   ANIMALS.  3 

this  disease  is  of  comparatively  modern  date,  still  we  have  no  justi- 
fiable reason  for  doubting  the  presence  of  these  parasites  in  swine 
at  a  very  early  date,  and  also  that  the  consecutive  disease  in  man 
must  have  existed  for  years,  if  not  centuries,  before  it  came  to  sci- 
entific recognition;  I  am  inclined  to  think,  almost  coeval  with  the 
consumption  of  pork  as  food.  In  this  opinion  I  find  myself  op- 
posed by  many  distinguished  observers  ;  but  the  fact  that  trichinae 
were  not  discovered  earlier  than  1831  does  not  at  all  militate  against 
my  conclusions.  They  simply  were  not  suspected.  Every  fact  in 
connection  with  the  history  of  the  parasite — its  minuteness,  the  un- 
certainty of  its  pathognomonic  phenomena  in  man,  and  still  more 
so  in  the  hog,  which  render  ditticult  the  correct  diagnosis  of  trichi- 
niasis — supports  my  hypothesis. 

Ililler*  says:  "The  history  of  this  disease  can  be  appropriately 
divided  into  three  periods,  the  first  beginning  with  the  discovery, 
or  observation,  of  the  capsule — the  parasite  not  being  recognized — 
in  1S21-'2S,  including  the  description  of  the  same  by  Dr.  Hilton, 
of  Guy's  Hospital,  London,  England,  in  1S35. 

'•  The  second  period  extends  from  1835,  when  Paget  discovered 
the  encapsulated  parasite  and  Owen  described  it,  giving  to  it  its 
name,  'trichina  spiralis,'  to  the  first  authentic  observation  of  the 
disease  in  a  human  being,  and  the  direct  establishment  of  its  con- 
nection with  a  parasitic  disease  of  swine  which  took  place  in  1860. 

"  This  begins  the  third  period  in  the  history  of  trichina  spiralis — 
the  period  of  active  scientific  investigation — which  is  by  no  means 
at  an  end,  and  which  awaits  its  conclusion  in  the  discovery  of  the 
original  source  whence  swine  derive  the  parasite." 

In  the  mean  time,  Professor  Leidy,  of  Philadelphia,  was  the  first 
to  discover  the  parasite  in  the  flesh  of  the  hog  in  1867.  It  is  a 
singular  fact  that  this  discovery  should  have  been  made  by  means 
of  an  American  hog. 

The  principal  workers  in  this  important  field  of  helminthic  re- 
search have  been  Owen,  Cobbold,  Bristow,  and  others,  in  Britain ; 
and  Leuckart,  Virchow,  Zenker,  Kiichenmeister,  and  the  veterinari- 
ans Gerlach  and  Fiirstenberg,  in  Germany. 

Cobbold  t  describes  the  parasite  as  follows :  "  Trichina  sjnralis  is 
an  extremely  minute  nematode  lielminth,  the  male  in  its  fully  de- 
veloped and  sexually  matured  condition  measuring  only  one  eigh- 
teenth of  an  inch,  while  the  perfectly  developed  female  reaches  a 
length  of  about  one  eighth  ;  body  rounded  and  filiform,  usually 
slightly  bent  on  itself,  rather  thicker  behind  than  in  front,  espe- 

*  Ziem?3cn's  "  Encyclopscdia  of  Medicine,"  vol.  iii.  f  "  Entozoa,"  p.  335. 


4:  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

cially  in  the  males ;  head  narrow,  finely  pointed,  unarmed,  with  a 
simple,  central,  minute  oval  aperture  ;  posterior  extremity  of  the 
male  furnished  with  a  bilobed  caudal  appendage,  the  cloacal  or 
anal  aperture  being  situated  between  these  divergent  appendages ; 
penis  consisting  of  a  single  spicule,  cleft  above,  so  as  to  assume  a 
V-shaped  outline ;  female  stouter  than  the  male,  bluntly  rounded 
posteriorly,  with  genital  outlet  placed  forward  at  about  the  end  of  the 
first  fifth  of  the  long  diameter  of  the  body.  Eggs  measuring  y^w 
of  an  inch  from  pole  to  pole ;  mode  of  reproduction  viviparous." 

"  The  shell-less  ova  develop  into  minute  embryos  immediately  on 
fructification,  and  completely  fill  the  uterus  of  the  female,  and  are 
born  in  immense  numbers."  *  "  The  embryos  measure,  previous  to 
birth,  about  ten  micrometres  in  length,  and  five  to  six  in  transverse 
diameter.  The  study  of  the  structure  of  the  embryo  is  almost  im- 
possible so  long  as  it  is  retained  within  the  body  of  the  maternal 
parasite.  Here  it  resembles  a  delicate  thread,  having  a  somewhat 
uniform  granular  appearance,  which  becomes  less  distinct  as  devel- 
opment progresses.  In  the  older  embryos — extra-maternal — we 
may  perceive  a  very  delicate  cuticle  and  an  axial  line  running 
through  the  body ;  the  extremities  are  more  or  less  blunt,  and  not 
easily  to  be  distinguished  as  to  which  is  the  posterior  or  anterior 
end  of  the  parasite.  In  the  intestines  the  embryos  measure  about 
0*1  mm.  in  length,  sometimes  more,  and  have  a  transverse  diameter 
of  about  6  /i."     (Pagenstecker.) 

"  Within  the  abdominal  cavity  they  may  be  found  to  measure 
from  0*12  to  0*16  mm.  in  length,  with  a  transverse  diameter  of  8  fju. 
They  have  scarcely  ever  been  seen  less  than  0"12  mm.  in  length 
when  in  the  muscles.  Comparison  with  mature  trichinae  indicates 
that  the  slenderer  of  the  two  extremities  is  the  head." 

"  The  posterior  extremity  possesses  more  rigidity  than  the  ante- 
rior, and  also  seems  to  have  a  backward  and  forward  motion.  The 
rigid  condition  of  the  terminal  end  of  the  parasitic  embryo  corre- 
sponds with  the  situation,  or  limits,  of  the  axial  line,  which  is  looked 
upon  as  the  rudimentary  alimentary  canal.  The  anterior  portion  of 
the  embryo  is  not  granulous,  but  clear,  being  only  modified  by  a 
delicate  chitin  thread  which  is  continuous  with  the  cuticle,  and  con- 
stitutes the  first  indication  of  the  chitinous  lining  of  the  oval  cavity. 
As  development  progresses,  this  axial  line  divides  into  two  parts ; 
the  anterior  portion  corresponds  to  the  so-called  cell-body  of  the 
mature  parasite,  and  the  posterior  to  the  stomach,  intestines,  etc. 
The  sexual  organs  can  not,  as  yet,  be  distinguished.  The  embryos 
*  Leuckart,  "Die  menschlichen  Parasiten,"  vol.  ii,  p.  512. 


TRICniNIASIS  OF  M.VN   AND   ANIMALS.  5 

may  be  met  with  not  only  in  the  abdominal  cavity  of  the  autosite, 
but  also  in  tlie  thoracic  and  pericardial  sac,  and  in  such  numbers 
that  these  places  may  be  looked  upon  as  normal  resting-places  for 
the  embryos  on  their  migrations  ON'er  the  infected  organism.  In 
general  we  lind  them  far  more  numerously  represented  in  the  ab- 
dominal cavity,  which  corresponds  exactly  with  our  knowledge  of 
their  activity,  for  it  is  here  that  they  must  first  come  after  passing 
the  intestinal  parietes  on  their  migrations.  From  here  they  pass  on 
to  the  other  cavities  b}'  means  of  the  natural  openings,  or  ostia, 
through  which  the  oesophagus  and  large  vessels  pass  thi'ough  the 
diaphragm.  These  vessels  are  loosely  surrounded  by  connective 
tissue,  which  others  favorable  conditions  for  the  passage  of  the  para- 
sites. From  these  cavities  the  embryos  follow  the  course  of  the 
larger  vessels  and  nerves  over  the  body,  the  loose  connective  tissue 
offering  the  favorable  conditions.  The  duration  of  the  migratory 
period  can  not  be  determined  with  any  great  degree  of  accuracy ; 
but  it  is  undoubtedly  very  short,  as  embryos  have  been  found  in 
the  thoracic  cavity,  the  pericardial  sac,  and  adjoining  muscles,  as 
early  as  in  the  abdomen.  The  majority  of  observer  seem  to  agree 
in  considering  the  ninth  or  tenth  day  of  invasion  as  terminating  the 
migratory  period — that  is,  when  but  a  single  invasion  has  taken 
place." 

"  The  end)ryos  display  no  distinguishable  changes  either  in  size 
or  structure  during  the  period  of  migration.  The  first  appreciable 
changes  occur  after  they  have  reached  the  muscles,  and  have  be- 
come lodged  in  their  fibers." 

"  When  they  have  penetrated  the  fiber — that  is,  become  intra- 
sarcolemmatous — the  protoplasma  of  the  muscle-cell  undergoes  cer- 
tain pathological  changes,  which  exactly  correspond  to  the  fatty  de- 
generation observed  in  parenchymatous  myositis.  A  proliferation  of 
the  nuclei  is  quite  common,  if  not  an  invariable  phenomenon.  Like 
all  tissues  which  have  undergone  fatty  degeneration  of  their  plasma, 
such  fibci-s  are  darker,  less  refracting,  than  those  which  have  not 
been  subjected  to  parasitic  invasion.  Such  fibers  lose  their  con- 
tractility. When  cut  transvei*sely,  the  swollen  jiarenchyma  extends 
beyond  the  sarcolemmatous  sheath,  and  if  the  trichina  be  near  the 
section,  it  often  extends  free,  or  becomes  free,  with  the  protruded 
plasma.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  triehinaj  live  upon  the  elements 
of  the  plasma  while  lodged  in  the  fii)er,  as  they  are  in  an  appar- 
ently chrysalis  condition.  This  fatty  degeneration  of  the  paren- 
chyma seems  to  offer  no  impediment  to  a  second  invasion  of  the 
fiber." 


6  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

"  While  previous  to  migration  the  embryo  shows  a  somewhat 
slender  form,  it  soon  becomes  thicker,  or  more  rotund,  its  trans- 
verse diameter  beiag  nearly  double  that  which  it  had  before  migra- 
tion. Its  anterior  portion  becomes  more  slender  and  resembles  that 
of  the  mature  parasite.  The  posterior  end  becomes  more  blunt. 
Progressive  changes  also  take  place  in  the  axial  line,  the  different 
organs  becoming  distinct ;  especially  is  this  the  case  in  the  cell- 
body.  The  primitive  sexual  gland  is  to  be  seen  as  an  elongated 
sac ;  the  pointed  anterior  end  extends  beyond  the  stomach  in  the 
females,  and  turns  abruptly  backward  in  the  males.  The  oval  cav- 
ity has  a  proportionate  length,  and  over  its  middle  distinctly  shows 
the  first  traces  of  a  nervous  system,  which  in  the  form  of  an  oval 
enlargement,  cervical  gangUon,  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  cy- 
lindrical mass." 

"  With  the  progressive  development  of  the  internal  organs  comes 
a  corresponding  increase  of  the  external  dimensions  of  the  parasite. 
It  increases  more  in  length  than  thickness,  and  its  previous  rotund 
form  becomes  more  slender.  At  the  same  time  the  body  becomes 
curved,  and  after  a  while  assumes  an  irregular,  spiral  position — 
trichina  spiralis.  They  begin  to  assume  this  position  the  earliest  in 
the  larger  fibers ;  but  it  occurs  in  all,  even  when  the  lumen  scarcely 
exceeds  the  transverse  diameter  of  the  parasite.  In  the  vicinity 
of  the  parasite  the  sarcolemmatous  sheath  invariably  becomes  dis- 
tended, owing  to  the  lateral  pressure  exerted  by  the  parasite.  The 
spindle  shape  of  the  tube  is  due  to  the  elasticity  of  the  sarcolemma ; 
but,  as  it  becomes  thicker  and  clouded,  proliferation  must  take  place 
as  well.  The  intra-sarcolemmatous,  or  capsular,  development  of  the 
parasite  terminates  in  about  three  weeks  from  the  time  of  its  in- 
vasion of  the  fiber." 

"  The  enlargements  of  the  sarcolemma — capsules — vary  much 
in  form  and  size.  Sometimes  they  are  far  more  cylindrical  and 
elongated  than  at  others,  and  again  one  end  may  be  elongated  and 
the  other  bluntly  rounded." 

"  The  capsules  are  surrounded  by  a  rete  of  capillaries,  which  can 
be  injected.  A  growth  in  length  and  thickness,  due  to  the  irrita- 
tion caused  by  the  parasite,  gives  them  a  very  ramified  character." 

In  this  condition  the  parasites  are  known  as  "  muscle  trichinae  " ; 
but  when  in  the  intestines  of  an  autosite,  as  "  intestinal  trichinae." 
In  the  first  form  they  make  their  abode  entirely  in  the  striated,  or 
motory,  muscles — the  flesh.  They  have  not  been  met  with  in  an 
encapsulated  condition,  either  in  the  non-striated  muscles  or  in 
purely  adipose  tissue. 


TRICmNIASIS  OF  MAN  AND   ANIMALS.  7 

"While  this  seems  to  be  tlie  opinion  of  almost  all  observers, 
durin<^  my  observations  in  1879,  and  again  in  ISSl,  I  frequently 
found  encupsuled  trichiniii  in  the  midsit  of  purely  adipose  tissue, 
hetween  muscle-Jibers  of  very  fat  hogs ;  iiever^  however,  in  the  adi- 
pose tissue  which  lies  upon  musculature.  Since  then,  other  observ- 
ers have  rei^orted  the  same  thing.  In  a  letter,  read  at  the  ninth 
annual  meeting  of  the  American  Public  Health  Association,  held 
at  Savannah,  Georgia,  in  1881,  emanating  from  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  dated  October  20,  1881,  the  author,  with  the  custom- 
ary ignorance  and  consequent  impudence  of  an  American  politician, 
says,  in  answer  to  the  question,  "  Are  trichintii  found  in  the  fat  ? " 
"  I  have  until  now  thought  not.  Professor  Taylor,  of  this  depart- 
ment, tells  me  that  in  the  '  Journal  of  the  Microscopical  Associa- 
tion' he  has  recently  seen  that  they  have  heen  found  in  fat.  I 
should  rather  see  than  believe  without  so  doing.''^ 

I  think  this  is  easily  explained.  The  great  amount  of  fatty  in- 
filtration had  caused  absorption  of  the  plasma,  and  atrophy  of  the 
fibers  by  compression,  which  was,  however,  resisted  by  the  greater 
density  of  the  sarcolemma  in  the  vicinity  of  the  parasite,  and  also 
by  the  latter  itself.  Xo  other  explanation  seems  to  me  possible,  for 
the  capsules  were  comparatively  perfect. 

The  encapsuled  parasites  may  be  met  with  in  the  striated  mus- 
cles of  all  parts  of  the  body,  such  as  the  digital  muscles,  those  of 
the  abdominal  walls,  of  the  extremities,  the  eye,  the  ear,  the  larynx 
and  pharynx,  the  tongue,  oesophagus,  and  the  diaphragm ;  but  the 
heart  seems  to  be  a  favored  locality,  for  they  have  only  been  found 
in  its  flesh  in  very  isolated  cases. 

In  making  examinations  of  the  CBsophageal  muscles  of  a  rabbit 
that  had  been  fed  with  infected  pork,  I  was  much  struck  "with  the 
abruptness  with  which  I  met  trichinse,  in  passing  in  review  a  mi- 
croscopical section  of  the  oesophageo-cardiac  portion  of  the  stomach, 
when  one  passed  from  the  fibers  ])roper  to  the  stomach  to  those  of 
the  oesophagus ;  in  fact,  trichinae  could  be  seen  in  the  striated  fibers 
of  the  latter,  where  they  intruded  between  the  non-striated  of  the 
former ;  but  in  no  case  were  there  any  to  be  seen  in  the  smooth,  or 
inorganic  fibers. 

These  parasites  are  not,  however,  equally  distributed  over  the 
musculature  of  the  autosite,  but,  on  the  contrary,  appear  to  have 
their  favorite  places  of  abode.  They  have  a  predilection  for  the 
muscles  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  body;  of  these,  those  of  the 
tongue,  larynx  and  pharynx,  and  masticator}*  muscles  are  especially 
favored.     The  muscles  of  the  rump  are  more  profusely  invaded 


8  THE   DISEASES   OF   DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

than  those  of  the  extremities.  Very  few  have  been  discovered  in 
the  tail  of  any  animal.  In  the  extremities,  the  parasites  are  found 
to  be  more  abundant  where  the  muscle-fibers  begin  to  lose  them- 
selves in  their  tendinous  extension  than  in  the  body  of  the  muscle. 
]^umerous  estimates  have  been  published  by  different  observers 
as  to  the  percental  invasion  of  the  different  muscle-groups,  several 
of  which  may  be  given  here. 

Microscopic  specimens,*  of  an  average  length  of  two  centimetres 
and  a  width  of  one  centimetre,  were  taken  from  the  flesh  of  several 
hogs  which  had  been  found  triehinous. 

Eighty  sjDecimeus  taken  from  hog  'No.  1  gave  the  following : 

a.  Pillars  of  diaphragm 12  trichinse. 

&.  Muscles  "         4        " 

c.  "  larynx. 1         " 

d.  "  ribs None. 

e.  "  tongue " 

/.         "  neck " 

g.        "  eye  and  overarm " 

Sixty  specimens  from  hog  Ko.  2 : 

a.  Pillars  of  diaphragm 10  trichinaB. 

&.  Muscles           "         6 

c.  "  larynx 2         " 

d.  "  ribs None. 

e.  "  tongue " 

/         "  eye '" 

g.        "  overarm  and  neck " 

Forty  from  hog  'No.  3 : 

a.  Pillars  of  diaphragm 40  trichinse. 

&.  Muscles  " 25 

c.  "  larynx 4        " 

d.  "  ribs 6        " 

e.  "  tongue 8        " 

/.         "  neck,  eye,  and  overarm 2        " 

Forty  from  hog  No.  4 : 

a.  Pillars  of  diaphragm 40  trichinse. 

h.  Muscles  "         30        " 

c.  "  larynx 10         " 

d.  "  ribs 10 

e.  "  tongue 6        " 

/.        "  overarm -. 2         " 

*  "  Mittheilungen  aus.  d.  thierarzlichen  Praxis  im  Preussischen  Staate,"  18V7-"78, 
p.  99. 


TRICHINIASIS   OF   MAN   AND   ANIMALS.  9 

According  to  Gerlach  :  * 

One  jj:raiii  of  flesh  taken  from  tlio 

Psoas  luuscle coutuiued  IGl  tricluuo). 

Diaphragm  muscle .  "  129  '' 

Laryngeal        "     "  120  " 

Tongue            "     "  105  " 

Orbital             "     "  C4 

Abdominal       "      "  54  " 

Mas.-^etor           "      "  45  " 

Lips,  near  snout '•  43  " 

Serratus  magnns "  39  " 

Pectoralis  major "  33  " 

CEsophagus,  anterior  to  the  diaphragm "  31  " 

"           posterior               "               "  1  " 

Pelvi-femoral  muscle "  20  '' 

Tibial                    "     "  26  " 

Longissimus-dorsi  muscle "  20  " 

Soapulo-humeral       "      "  18  " 

Radio-ulnar              "      "  17  " 

Metatarsal                  "      "  9  " 

Intercostal                 "      "  8  " 

Small  muscle  of  ear "  2  " 

"             tail "  1  " 

Kriimerf  gives  the  following  as  the  results  of  examining  one 
gramme  of  tiesh  from  different  parts : 

From  the  biceps contained  420  trichina). 

"  raasseter "  213  " 

"  genio-glossus "  188  " 

"  gastrocnemius "  186  " 

"  sterno-mastoid "  171  " 

"  pectoral "  148  " 

'•  diapliragm "  129  " 

"  crico-tliyroid "  124  " 

"  intercostal "  113  " 

"  rectus  abdominis "  lOO  " 

'*  psoas "  105  " 

"  tongue "  58  " 

"  laryngeal "  21 

Not  having  any  opportunity  to  make  detailed  examinations  of 
the  muscles  of  any  whole  or  single  hog,  I  could  not  make  any  per- 
sonal observations  of  the  percental  di^-jK^i'sion  of  the  trichinae  over 
the  different  muscle-groups  or  parts  of  the  organism. 

Coming  upon  a  piece  of  a  pillar  of  the  diaphragm  which  was 
wonderfully  infected,  I  made  the  following  numerical  observation 

*  "  Die  Trichinon."  f  "  Deutsche  Klinik,"  July  and  August,  1872. 


10  THE   DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

(in  fact,  I  never  saw  among  all  my  examinations  a  piece  of  pork  so 
completely  filled  with  these  pests ;  capsules  with  four  trichinae  in 
them  were  by  no  means  seldom) :  '05  (5  centigrammes)  contained 
at  least  50  trichinag.  One  gramme  would  therefore  contain  1,000, 
and  4  grammes,  or  a  drachm,  4,000,  and  a  pound  of  such  pork 
would  contain  at  least  400,000,  and,  if  we  assume  the  muscles  of  a 
hog  to  weigh  100  pounds,  its  organism — were  equal  dispersion  pos- 
sible—would contain  40,000,000. 

The  immense  multitude  of  these  parasites  which  may  be  found 
infecting  a  sing-le  oro^anism  is  still  more  wonderful  than  their  wide 

O  C5  O 

dispersion  over  the  autosite. 

Leuckart  estimates  that,  in  some  of  the  cases  which  have  come 
under  his  observation,  a  single  gramme  of  flesh  lodged  from  twelve 
to  fifteen  hundred ;  and  assuming  the  muscles  of  a  man  to  weigh 
forty  j)ounds,  the  number  of  these  parasites  infecting  a  human  or- 
ganism at  such  a  ratio  would  sum  up  some  thirty  millions. 

In  Zenker's  case — to  be  especially  noticed  later — Fiedler  calcu- 
lated that  the  woman  must  have  lodged  some  ninety-four  millions  ; 
and  Cobbold  assumes  that  one  hundred  millions  of  the  encapsulated 
parasites  may  sometimes  infect  one  organism  at  the  same  time. 

Leuckart  again  says  that  no  one  would  look  upon  the  foregoing 
as  exaggerated  estimates  who,  like  himself,  had  found  some  sixty 
trichinse  in  ten  milligrammes  of  muscle. 

In  a  report  of  the  Chicago  Academy  of  Sciences,  it  was  esti- 
mated that  one  cubic  inch  of  pork,  examined  under  its  auspices, 
contained  some  ten  thousand,  and  that  a  person  consuming  the 
ordinary  amount  of  such  fiesh,  taken  at  a  single  meal,  would  intro- 
duce into  his  organism  more  than  one  million  trichinae. 

Kauch  found  numerous  trichinae  infecting  the  muscles  of  a  hog. 
Of  three  hundred  microscopic  specimens,  they  failed  in  but  tliree. 
In  some  he  found  thirty  in  one  focus  ;  in  others,  but  five  or  six  ex- 
amples. As  in  seventy  specimens  weighing  one  gramme  three  hun- 
dred and  fifty  trichinae  were  found,  one  pound  would  contain  one 
hundred  and  seventy-five  thousand ;  and  one  hundred  pounds,  sev- 
enteen million  five  hundred  thousand.  In  many  cases,  however, 
the  parasites  are  much  less  frequently  met  with ;  and  one  has  to 
search  through  many  microscopic  specimens  before  meeting  with 
any,  and  then  only  with  isolated  examples. 

"When  sufficient  time  has  elapsed  from  the  invasion  of  the  mus- 
cles and  formation  of  the  capsules,  the  same  may  be  recognized 
microscopically  as  small,  white  specks.  Such  muscles  appear  as  if 
sprinkled  with  grains  of  white  salt  or  sand.     The  calcification  of 


TRICniXIASIS  OF  M-VX  AND   ANIMALS.  H 

the  capsule  begins  about  the  fifth  month  subsequent  to  the  invasion 
of  the  muscles. 

It  lias  been  said  by  some  observers  that  the  trichinae  capsules  in 
the  hog  do  not  calcify ;  others  aflSrm  the  contrary.  The  polari- 
scope,  liowever,  will  reveal  tlie  presence  of  calcareous  salts  in  the 
capsule  if  sutHcicnt  time  has  elaj)sed  since  invasion.  The  reason 
they  may  not  be  easily  recognized  microscopically  must  be  souglit 
intlie  influence  on  the  salts  of  the  fatty  oils  in  the  porcine  organism, 
which  renders  the  crystals  less  visible. 

The  Intestinal  Tkichinje. 

So  long  as  the  trichinjB  remain  encapsulated  in  the  fibers  of  the 
muscle,  their  condition  remains  unchanged.  They  make  no  progress 
in  their  development,  irrespective  of  the  number  of  years  that  they 
may  have  been  imprisoned.  They  have  been  seen  in  an  active — i.  e., 
capable  of  progressive — development,  under  favorable  conditions, 
thirteen,  twenty,  and  even  twenty-four  years  from  the  time  invasion 
took  place. 

a.  In  1861  a  woman  was  admitted  into  the  hospital  at  Altona,  Ger- 
many, suffering  from  a  mammary  cancer,  which  had  been  develop- 
ing some  twelve  years.  On  its  removal  and  subjection  of  its  tissues 
to  microscopic  examination,  the  presence  of  trichinje  in  the  muscle- 
fibers  was  manifested.  On  inquiry,  it  was  ascertained  that  in  1856 
the  woman  had  resided  at  Davenport,  Iowa,  where  she  was  taken 
suddenly  very  ill,  gastric  and  rheumatic  phenomena  being  the  most 
prominent  of  any,  together  with  oedema  of  various  parts  and  para- 
lytic phenomena.  Her  brother,  with  whom  she  resided,  was  at- 
tacked in  a  similar  but  less  severe  form  at  the  same  time.  The 
woman  died  at  the  Altona  Hospital  in  1864,  and  an  examination  of 
lier  muscles  revealed  the  presence  of  great  numbers  of  encapsulated 
trichinae.  A  cat  fed  with  pieces  of  these  muscles  died  in  the  course  of 
sixteen  days,  its  muscles  being  repletely  infected  with  these  parasites. 

h.  Virchow  reports  a  case  where,  after  the  lapse  of  thirteen  years 
and  a  half  the  parasites  moved  in  their  capsules  on  prolonged  ex- 
posure to  the  heat  of  the  sun. 

c.  Klopsch  reports  a  case  of  trichiniasis,  with  complete  recovery, 
which  took  place  in  1842.  The  parasites  were  discovered  in  the 
muscles  of  the  individual  twenty-four  years  afterward.  This  dis- 
covery was  also  made  on  the  excision  of  a  mammary  cancer.  At 
the  same  time  that  this  woman  was  ill,  two  persons  in  the  same 
house  became  sick  under  similar  conditions.  Both  died.  (Virchow's 
"  Archiv,"  Bd.  35,  p.  609.) 


12  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

d.  Professor  Dammau,*  formerly  of  the  Elclena  Agricultural 
Academy,  reports  a  very  interesting  case,  illustrating  the  longevity 
and  tenacity  of  life  of  embryonal  tricliinse  in  the  muscles  of  a  hog. 

This  hog  was  fed  with  trichinous  meat  in  November,  1S6J:,  and 
in  February,  1865,  presented  to  the  experiment  station  at  Eldena. 
Since  that  time  the  animal  had  been  kept  isolated,  unless  removed 
from  its  pen  for  examination.  On  February  3,  1875,  and  February 
12, 1876,  Dammau  removed  a  small  piece  of  flesh  from  the  shoulder. 
At  both  times  trichinae  were  found.  A  considerable  piece  of  flesh 
was  removed  and  fed  to  two  rabbits,  and  eighteen  days  subse- 
quently their  muscles  were  found  to  be  j)lentifully  invaded  with 
trichinse. 

This  case  demonstrates,  beyond  all  question,  the  presence  of 
living  trichinse,  which  were  caj)able  of  maturing,  fructifying,  and 
developing  young  when  fed  to  other  animals,  after  a  period  of 
eleven  years  and  a  quarter  from  the  time  that  the  invasion  of  the 
hog  took  place. 

Although  the  encapsulated  trichinse  suffer  no  changes  while 
confined  in  the  muscles  of  an  autositic  organism,  yet  the  introduc- 
tion of  portions  of  such  muscles  into  the  intestinal  tract  of  man,  or 
other  suitable  animal,  causes  rapid  changes  in  their  condition.  The 
processes  of  digestion  soon  set  the  imprisoned  parasites  free  from 
their  capsules,  three  to  four  hours  being  sufficient  for  the  purpose. 
The  freed  parasites  rapidly  complete  their  development  to  mature 
trichinae,  thirty  to  forty  hours  being  enough.  In  cases  of  fresh  in- 
vasion, when  the  capsules  have  not  become  very  hardened,  twenty- 
four  hours  have  been  found  sufficient  to  demonstrate  the  presence 
of  sexually  matured  trichinae  in  the  intestines  of  animals  fed  with 
such  flesh  by  way  of  experiment.  Still,  we  may  often  find  trichinae 
inclosed  in  their  capsules  on  the  third  day  after  feeding  infected 
flesh  to  an  animal. 

There  is  scarcely  another  helminth  by  which  this  matured  stage 
in  its  development  is  reached  in  so  short  a  period. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  is  self-evident  that  the  changes 
necessary  to  maturity  by  these  parasites  must  be  of  a  very  insignifi- 
cant character. 

As  a  rule,  sexual  connection  takes  place  within  two  days  from 
the  time  the  trichinae  become  free. 

The  parasite  increases  in  length  and  thickness,  and  in  the  fe- 
male the  uterus  fills  with  fructified  ova,  which  soon  develop  into 
embryos  still  inclosed  in  the  maternal  worm. 

*  "Zeitschrift  fiir  prac.  Thi«rlieilkundc,"  ISYG,  vol.  iii,  p.  92. 


TRICHINIASIS   OF  MAN  AND   ANIMALS.  13 

The  female  intestinal  or  matured  parasite  lives  from  five  to  six 
weekr;,  and  produces  at  least  fifteen  Imndred  embryos.     (Leuckart.) 

The  newly  burn  embryos  are  at  first  buried  in  the  mucus  which 
lines  the  intestinal  canal ;  a  microscopic  examination  of  such  mucus, 
at  this  time,  will  reveal  them  as  free  and  niovaldc  parasites.  The 
embryos  soon  begin  their  migration  and  dispei*si(.)n  over  the  organ- 
ism, the  first  act  being  the  penetration  of  the  intestinal  parietes.  It 
seems  to  be  still  a  matter  of  discussion  as  to  the  means  or  ways 
by  which  further  migration  takes  place.  Some  authorities,  in  fact, 
all  the  most  eminent,  favor  the  view  that  the  parasites  proceed  by 
the  way  of  the  mesenterium  and  connective-tissue  tracts  over  the  or- 
ganism, and  penetrate  the  sarcolemma,  or  sheath  of  the  muscle-fibers. 

Another  view,  the  possibility  of  which  is  conceded  by  the 
above-named  authors  to  a  minor  degree,  is  that  the  embryos  gain 
access  to  tlie  circidation,  and  are  transported  over  the  organism  by 
the  moving  fluid,  boring  the  smaller  vessels  at  convenience,  and 
thus  gaining  access  to  the  muscles.     (Thudicum.) 

AVere  this  the  principal  j^ath  of  dispersion,  we  ought  to  be  able 
to  discover  numerous  examples  of  the  parasite  in  the  circulating 
blood  of  living  animals  that  have  been  subjected  to  feeding  experi- 
ments.    This  has  not  been  the  case,  however. 

Thxis  it  is  evident  that  the  host,  or  consumer  of  trichin-infected 
Jit  sh,  provides  the  means  for  its  own  invasion. 

While  this  is,  in  general,  the  manner  in  which  invasion  takes 
place,  it  by  no  means  excludes  the  possibility  of  the  infection  of  an 
animal  taking  place  by  intestinal  trichinas  (embryos),  which  have 
passed  from  an  already  infected  organism  with  its  fieces.  In  this 
way  an  infected  swine  may  infect  others,  or,  in  fact,  give  occasion 
to  a  secondary  invasion  of  itself,  by  rooting  in  the  manure  of  its 
j^n.  In  the  same  way  swine  may  become  infected  from  infected 
human  beings  where,  as  is  too  often  the  case,  the  out-houses  for 
the  family  are  placed  over  the  pig-pen,  or  load  into  it,  or  where  the 
contents  of  the  same  are  thrown  into  the  piggery  for  the  swine  to 
work  over. 

Thus  we  see  the  cycle  of  invasion  may  frequently  continue 
from  swine  to  man,  and  from  man  to  swine. 

Trichinre  may  be  assumed  to  be  regidar  cosmopolitans.  AVhethor 
Xoah  took  a  pair  of  them  with  him  into  the  ark  will  probably  con- 
tinue to  be  an  open  question.  They  have  been  discovered  in  Ger- 
many, England,  Scotland,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Kussia,  France,  Italy, 
North  and  South  America,  Africa,  India,  Australia,  Spain,  Egypt, 
and  Syria. 


14  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  AXIMALS. 

In  fact,  it  may  truly  be  said  that  they  have  been  found  infecting 
pork  in  whatever  land,  and  wherever  they  have  been  sought  for. 

As  to  their  presence  in  other  animals  than  man  and  the  hog, 
they  have  only  been  unquestionably  found  in  warm-blooded  ani- 
mals, such  as  cats,  dogs,  rabbits,  rats,  mice,  the  marmot,  the  wild 
hog  of  EurojDC,  and  even  the  hippopotamus. 

Gerlach  has  produced  invasion  in  calves  and  horses,  while 
Leisering  was  unable  to  in  the  latter  animal. 

Several  reports  have  been  published  with  reference  to  the  dis- 
covery of  trichinae  in  the  flesh  of  fish  and  other  cold-blooded  ani- 
mals, but  they  all  fail  of  experimental  proof,  and  are  non-conforma- 
ble with  our  knowledge  of  the  physiological  activities  of  the  parasite, 
which  becomes  torpid  in  a  temperature  a  few  degrees  below  that  of 
the  ordinary  living  mammal. 

For  some  unknown  reason  they  do  not  seem  to  be  able  to  invade 
the  muscles  of  fowls,  though  some  authors  claim  to  have  found 
them  in  the  intestines.  A  case  is  reported  of  invasion  of  some 
soldiers  from  eating  a  goose  ("Philadelphia  Medical -Times,"  April 
13,  1878),  the  accuracy  of  which  is  very  questionable,  as  pigs  are 
fully  as  easily  stolen  as  geese;  and  no  evidence  exists  that  they 
were  seen  in  the  flesh  of  the  goose. 

"With  regard  to  hens,  I  made  quite  a  series  of  experiments. 

1.  I  fed  them  with  highly  infected  pork,  in  the  natural  way. 
Results  negative.  'No  trichinae,  either  in  the  intestines  or  mus- 
cles. 

2.  Assuming  that  the  triturating  powers  of  the  gizzard  might  be 
sufficient  to  destroy  the  parasites  before  they  could  gain  access  to 
the  intestines,  I  caused  a  quantity  of  infected  pork  to  be  chopped 
for  several  hours,  until  it  became  a  veritable  mush ;  microscopic 
examination  of  this  mass  revealed  the  presence  of  numerous  free 
trichinge.  This  mass  was  stirred  up  with  warm  water,  so  that  it 
could  be  drawn  into  a  coarse  syringe ;  the  intestines  of  the  fowls 
were  then  washed  out  as  cleanly  as  possible  with  warm  enemas,  and 
time  given  for  the  water  to  flow  off  again.  Several  syringefuls  of 
the  mass  were  then  injected,  and  the  outflow  stopped  artificially. 
After  forty-eight  hours  this  obstruction  was  removed.  Results 
absolutely  negative,  so  far  as  producing  muscle-invasion  was  con- 
cerned, at  an  examination  made  four  weeks  from  the  time  of  the 
experiment.     No  trichinae  in  intestines. 

3.  The  abdominal  cavity  of  six  other  fowls  was  opened,  and  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  the  watery  mass,  but  thicker  than  the  preceding, 
poured  in.     The  aperture  was  then  sewed  up.     The  hens  drooped 


TRICniNIASIS  OF  MAN  AND  ANIMALS.  15 

a  few  days,  but  recovered,  and  ate  well.  Examination  at  the  same 
time  with  the  othei-s  gave  negative  results,  altliough  a  queer-looking 
condition  of  tlie  abdominal  cavity  existed.  Why  these  hens  did  not 
die  of  septictemia  I  do  not  know. 

I  had  hoped  to  carry  on  numerous  feeding  and  therapeutic  ex- 
periments during  my  examinations  of  i)ork  in  1S81,  but  lack  of 
means  on  my  own  part,  as  well  as  on  the  part  of  the  Board  of 
Health  of  Massachusetts,  prevented  their  accomplishment. 

Tricudoasis  in  Swine. 

As  we  have  previously  mentioned,  the  disease  was  discovered 
in  swine  by  Leidy,  in  1847. 

It  is  to  German  observers  that  we  must  look  almost  entirely  for 
any  authoritative  statements  with  reference  to  the  percental  infection 
of  swine  with  these  pests,  for  in  no  other  country  is  there  at  present 
anything  approaching  a  systematic  examination  of  pork,  and  even  in 
Germany  there  is  much  room  for  improvement. 

To  make  the  statistics  valuable,  it  is  necessary  that  the  law 
should  require  that,  at  least  so  far  as  domestic  consumption  goes, 
all  hogs  should  be  examined  before  being  cut  up,  and  that  only  one 
part — viz.,  the  pillars  of  the  diaphragm,  or  psoas  muscles — slioiild  be 
used  for  examination.  There  is  no  evidence  that  this  is  the  case  in 
Germany,  hence  I  much  doubt  whether  it  would  not  be  possible  to 
largely  increase  their  present  ratio  of  infection.  The  following 
statistics  have  been  gathered  at  random,  M'ith  no  attempt  at  com- 
pleteness, but  simply  as  illustrations,  from  the  books  in  my  own 
library,  such  as  Virchow's  "  Archiv,"  the  "  Yierteljahrsschrift  f iir 
gerichtliche  Medicin,"  the  "  Deutsche  Zcitschrift  fiir  Thiermedicin," 
"The  Veterinary  Reports  of  Saxony  and  Hanover,"  the  "  ^lagazin 
fiir  Thierheilkunde  "  (Gurlt  u.  Hertwig),  the  "  Archiv  fiir  Tliier- 
heilkunde,"  and  the  "  Mittheilungen  aus  d.  Praxis  d.  Preussischen 
Staate." 

For  Rostock,  Germany,  Petri  gives  the  following : 

1869 Number  hogs  examined,  5,4o7 ;   trichinons,  1 

1871 "  "  "  G,520  "  2 

1872 "  "  "  6.555  "  0 

1873 "  "  "  0,441  "  3 

1874 "  "  «•  fi,731  "  2 

1875 "  '>  '•  7,222  "  5 

1876 "  "  '•  7.165  "  0 

1877 "  "  '•  T,5G2  "  2 

Total 53,653  15 

Tricbinou.-=,  1-3543. 


16 


THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 


For  Braunschweig,  Ulide  reports  :   Whole  number  examined 
between  1866  and  1880,  111,806 ;  trichinous,  29. 

1866-'67  there  was  found  1  liog  of  every  6,700  examined,  trichinous. 


1867-'68          ' 

'             5,700 

1868-'69           ' 

'           14,500 

1869-'70           ' 

'           15,300 

1871-'72           ' 

'           13,387 

1872-'73           ' 

4,874 

1873-'74 

'             5,129 

1874-'75          ' 

'             7,004 

1875-'76 

'           13,183 

1876-'77          ' 

7,127 

1877-'78 

5,879 

1878-'79 

'           10,397 

1879-'80 

3,857 

PRUSSIAN    STATE   STATISTICS. 


No.  examined. 

Trichinous. 

Measles. 

No.  of  state  examiners. 

1876 

1,728,595 
2,057,272 
2,524,105 
3,164,656 
3,342,303 

800 

701 

1,222 

1,938 

2,284 

4,705 
5,434 
6,165 
9,669 
11,379 

11,915 

1877 

12,865 

1878 

16,251 

1879 

17,413 

18,332 

1880 

Total 

12,816,831 

6,945 

Trichinous,  1  to  1,845. 

Eulenburg's  report  for  1880  deserves  some  special  consideration. 

The  ratio  of  trichinae  in  swine  in  Prussia  has,  we  see,  constantly 
advanced  with  each  year  since  1876.  In  1879  it  was  1  to  1,632 ; 
and  in  1880,  1  to  1,460 ;  which  must  be  attributed  to  greater  exact- 
ness in  the  observations.  The  great  number,  constantly  increasing, 
of  appointed  examiners  is  also  worthy  of  notice:  from  11,915  in 
1876,  they  have  been  increased  to  18,332  in  1880.  In  Berlin  they 
found  1  to  1,247  swine  trichinous,  while  in  Posen  the  ratio  was 
1  to  138,  which  more  nearly  corresponds  to  the  conditions  in  this 
country.  There  does  not  seem  to  be  &t  present  any  endeavor  on 
the  part  of  the  Government  to  make  investigations  into  the  cause 
of  these  things.  Three  hundred  and  twenty-nine  cases  of  trichiniasis 
among  human  beings,  and  four  deaths,  are  reported.  In  all  cases  it 
was  traced  to  the  consumption  of  either  uncooked  or  improperly 
examined  pork.  In  Berlin  there  were  but  sixteen  cases  during  the 
year,  a  much  smaller  number  than  in  previous  years,  which  is  at- 
tributed to  the  greater  stringency  with  which  the  examinations  are 
carried  out.     One  of  these  cases  is  interesting  from  the  fact  that 


TRICniNIASIS   OF   MAX   AND   AXIMALS.  17 

the  person  who  died,  consumed,  raw,  a  piece  of  pork  known  to  he 
trichinous,  in  order  to  show  tl»at  the  idea  that  trichinsij  caused  dis- 
ease in  man  was  a  faUacy.  Of  examinations  of  American  pork,  the 
report  says  3,030  trichinous  pieces,  sides,  were  found.  Such  an 
examination  lias  no  statistical  value,  as  it  does  not  show  whether 
the  sides  were  all  from  different  hogs  or  not ;  further,  were  they  all 
American  I  The  average  of  trichiniasis  in  American  I'Ieces,  not 
hogs,  was  found  to  be  4  to  100.  It  was  found  that  the  abdominal 
muscles  were  only  serviceable  for  examination,  or  such  as  were  at- 
tached to  the  shoulders.  More  than  twenty  sides  a  day  should  not 
be  examined  by  one  person  (?). 

In  Schleswig,  of  TS2  "  Amerikanischen  Rouladen,"  8  were  found 
trichinous ;  of  1,052  sides,  G4 ;  3,903  hams,  6G  ;  and  13  shouldei-s,  3. 

In  Stettin,  of  72,230  sides,  1,124  were  found  trichinous. 

The  number  of  swine  affected  with  measles  was  1,710  more 
than  in  the  former  year. 

From  Hamburg,  Germany,  we  have  a  few  statistics  which  may 
have  an  instructive  comparative  value : 

In  1ST8,  of  35,510  American  hiiins  esaininod,  397  trichinous. 
''         "  14,003  "        Bides  "  85 

"  17,113  European  haras        "  3  " 

"        "       2'2-2         "        sides  and  10,838  hogs  examined,  none  trichinous. 
In  1879,  of  79,8G4  American  hams  exnmiued,  1,087  trichinous. 

41        ((  22,749  "        sides  and  shoulders  examined,  196  trichinous. 

''        "  28,710  European  hams  examined,  2  trichinous. 
"  16,204        "         hogs  "  1  " 

In  1880,  of  55,008  American  hams  examined,  566  trichinous. 
"         "  23,589  "        sides  "  270  " 

"        "  49,943  European  hams,  sides,  and  hogs  examined,  none  trichinous. 
At  Blankenburg,  from  1864-'65,  7,000  to  8,000  hogs  examined,  and  but  1  in- 
fected. 

At  IXanorer,  from  1865-'66,  18,656  hogs  examined,  and  12  trichinous. 
In  Sachsen-Weimar,  from  March,  1868-'69,  19,611  examined,  and  1  found 
trichinous. 

In  1875-'76,  at  Frankfort,  8,000  hogs  examined,  4  tricliinous. 

"  "  Gulen,  1,600  to  1,800  hogs  examined,  1  trichinous. 

At  Copenhagen,  1867,  8.174  examined,  15  trichinous. 
At  Charkow,  Russia,  1876,  3,550  examined,  5  trichinous. 

These  statistics  could  be  multiplied  ad  libiiu)n,  but  they  are 
sufficient  to  show  the  results  of  Continental  examinations.  It  is  to 
be  regretted,  however,  that  we  have  no  reliable  statistics  from  either 
England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  or  France,  or  other  Continental  coun- 
tries, since  they  have  commenced  to  lay  so  much  stress  upon  the 
infected  condition  of  American  pork. 
2 


18  THE   DISEASES   OF   DOMESTIC  AXIMALS. 

Trichina  in  Americajst  Pork. 

"We  have  already  noticed  the  examinations  of  American  pork 
made  at  Hamburg  during  several  years,  and  will  follow  with  a  few 
more  quotations  of  the  same  nature : 

At  Rostock,  12  of  622  Americaa  sides  were  found  trichinous. 
At  Gothenburg,  8  of  210  American  sides  were  found  trichinous. 
At  Ebbing,  2  per  cent  of  the  pieces  examined  were  found  trichinous. 
In  Schleswig-Holstein,  of  5,673  pieces  examined,  47  were  found  trichinous. 
In  1877,  343  cases  of  infected  American  pork  were  reported,  and  183  cases 
of  the  disease  in  human  beings. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  year  1881,  badly  infected  American 
pork  was  reported  as  having  been  found  at  Lyons,  France. 

Professor  Mueller,  of  the  Berlin  Veterinary  Institute,  wrote  me, 
under  date  of  December,  1880,  that  of  eighty-eight  live  American 
hogs  (constituting  a  part  of  a  shipment)  that  had  been  slaughtered 
at  Dresden,  fourteen  were  found  trichinous. 

Dr.  Loring  *  says,  "  I  do  not  know  that  Germany  or  France 
has  even  examined  for  this  disease  in  live  hogsP 

The  foregoing  was  reported  by  me  in  American  papers  at  the 
time,  and  subsequently  in  the  report  of  the  Imperial  Board  of 
Health  of  Germany,  and  several  German  medical  reviews ;  and 
could  have  been  as  well  known  to  our  agncultural  department  as 
the  presence  of  pleuro-pneumonia  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  a 
fact  that  ocular  demonstration  of  diseased  lungs  could  scarcely  force 
upon  our  agricultural  commissioner. 

At  Turin,  Italy,  February,  1879,  four  per  cent  of  a  lot  of  Cin- 
cinnati hams  were  found  trichinous,  which  led  to  the  Government 
putting  restrictive  examinations  on  all  further  importations. 

A  continual  recurrence  of  such  facts  has  caused  a  more  or  less 
strong  feeling  on  the  Continent  against  our  pork,  a  feeling  which 
nationalism  and  the  public  prints  have  fostered  to  the  fullest  extent. 

The  result  has  been  that  in  many  countries  restrictive  measures 
regulating  the  importation  of  American  pork  have  been  introduced, 
which  to  a  certain  measure  have  acted  as  an  embargo  against  further 
importations.  In  some  countries  these  measures  have  even  been 
extended  to  American  lard,  and  a  great  alarm  created  about  some 
kind  of  hydraulic  pressing  out  of  the  same  instead  of  trying  it  out ; 
in  fact,  everything  possible  is  being  done  to  keep  out  the  competi- 
tion of  American  products. 

*  Letter  to  Health  Congress,  Savannah,  1881. 


TRICniXIASIS  OF  MAX   AND   AXIM.VLS.  19 

"With  regard  tt.)  our  pork,  I  think  the  assertions  of  tlie  Germans 
and  their  restrictive  measures  are  just. 

Naturally  enough  the  old  adage,  "  Touch  a  man's  pocket  and  you 
touch  his  heart,''  found  an  illustration  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic. 

The  pork-producers  of  every  variety  became  very  much  alarmed, 
and  called  upon  the  Government  to  assist  them. 

Our  consuls  all  over  Europe  were  requested  to  make  inquiries 
as  to  the  true  nature  of  these  reports,  and  to  report  to  their  own 
Government.  It  is  not  within  the  nature  of  my  work  to  consider 
these  re2:>orts  in  detail ;  but,  suffice  it  to  say  that  they  displayed 
fully  as  much  patriotism  for  the  purity  of  American  pork  as  the 
Continentals  did  for  their  o^^^l.  Some  went  so  far  as  to  call  the 
whole  thing  a  humbug.  A  real  desire  to  know  the  truth  pervaded 
neither  our  representatives  at  home  nor  abroad. 

As  with  pleuro-pncumonia  of  our  cattle,  so  with  trichiniasis  of 
the  hog,  our  Government  adopted  a  prevaricating  and  false  course. 
It  sought  to  "bluff  down"  the  results  of  foreign  examinations,  and 
either  did  not  seek  to  discover,  or  ignored  the  results  of,  home  ex- 
aminations. 

In  the  face  of  a  report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massa- 
chusetts— numerous  copies  of  which  were  sent  to  Washington — 
which  contained  a  pa])er  on  the  subject  of  trichiniasis,  and  statistics 
of  the  examination  of  the  largest  number  of  hogs  which  had  until 
then  been  made  in  the  country,  the  State  Department  published 
a  singular  document,  which  requires  attention.  It  utterly  ignored 
the  statistics  of  the  above  report. 

Clauses  8,  9,  and  10  are  as  follows : 

8.  That  the  percentage  of  American  hogs  infected  with  trichinaa 
is,  in  all  prohabililt/,  hy  reason  of  tJie  superiority  of  the  hreed 
(which?)  and  feeding,  much  less  than  that  among  the  hoys  of  any 
other  country. 

9.  That  freedom  from  trichiniasis  of  the  two  great  pork-consuni- 
ing  centers  of  the  West,  Chicago  and  Cincinnati,  furnishes  the 
strongest  possible  evidence  of  the  purity  of  American  ])ork.  In 
Chicago,  of  forty  thousand  deaths,  with  causes,  reported  for  a  series 
of  years,  oidy  two  were  from  trichiniasis.  During  the  same  time 
none  were  reported  in  Cincinnati. 

10.  The  reported  cases  of  trichiniasis  among  human  beings  have 
resulted  from  eating  uncooked  pork,  etc. 

With  regard  to  trichiuie  in  American  hogs,  the  above-quoted 
sections  from  a  state  document  have  no  foundation  whatever. 
They  have  nothing  to  stand  upon. 


20  THE   DISEASES   OF  DOMESTIC  ANIilALS. 

In  clause  8  it  does  not  stand  upon  facts,  but  upon  a  mere  asser- 
tion— that  "probably,"  etc. 

Again,  the  person  who  instructed  the  Government  knew  abso- 
lutely nothing  about  trichinse.  Neither  the  breed  of  the  hogs  nor 
corn-feeding,  or  any  manner  of  feeding  as  commonly  practiced,  aside 
from  swill-feeding,  need  have  anything  to  do,  ])ro  or  con^  with  tri- 
chinse in  the  hog.  The  hogs  at  the  two  great  packing  centers  have 
never  been  thoroughly  examined  for  trichinse,  and  at  the  time  this 
document  was  published  neither  the  Interior  nor  any  other  depart- 
ment had  organized  any  proper  examination  of  American  pork. 

The  j)ercentage  of  deaths  among  human  beings  has  nothing  to 
do  with  the  percentage  of  infection  among  swine. 

Luckily  for  the  American  people,  it  has  not.  Even  though 
cooking  will  kill  trichinse,  and  thus  render  infected  pork  harmless, 
it  does  not  prove  that  American  hogs  have  "  much  less  trichinse 
than  those  of  any  other  country."  A  German  has  as  much  right  to 
indulge  a  taste  for  uncooked  smoked  ham  or  spiced  hashed  pork  as 
an  American  or  Englishman  has  for  rare  or  raw,  warm  or  cold  roast 
beef.  The  German  may  be  invaded  by  trichinse  for  his  cannibal- 
ism, and  the  American  by  a  tape-worm  {icBnia  7nedio-candlata). 

Examinations  of  American  Pokk. 

At  Chicago,  April,  1881,  a  Dr.  Paton  is  said  (newspaper  report) 
to  have  examined  twenty  specimens  each,  from  four  hundred  hogs, 
and  found  none  trichinous. 

The  Chicago  Academy  of  Sciences  ("  Boston  Medical  and  Surgi- 
cal Journal,"  vol.  Ixxiv,  p.  136)  reports  the  examination  of  thirteen 
hundred  and  ninety-four  hogs,  and  finding  twenty-eight  trichinous. 

Health  Commissioner  De  "Wolff  reported  (1879)  finding  eight 
out  of  a  hundred  trichinous. 

In  1879  I  commenced  my  examinations  of  pork  for  the  State 
Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts,  and  again  during  three  months 
of  the  summer  of  1881.  These  examinations  were  not  made  upon 
any  selected  lots  of  swine,  but  the  specimens  were  taken  at  random 
from  the  hogs  as  they  hung  up. 

1^0  attempt  was  made  to  discover  whence  the  hogs  originally 
came,  though,  with  the  exception  of  about  fifty,  they  were  all 
bought  at  Chicago,  and  hence  %cere  emphatically  Western  hogs.  In 
making  these  examinations,  the  pillars  of  the  diaphragm  were  inva- 
riably used,  one  piUar  representing  one  hog.  But  three  microscopic 
specimens  were  taken  from  each  pillar — a  rule  which  I  invariably 
adhered  to. 


TRICniNIASIS  OF  MAX  AND  ANIMALS. 


21 


1879. 


LOT. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

l:} 

U 

15 

\6 

17 

IS 

19 

20 


Number  ex- 
auiluud. 


47 

48 

72 

fio 

226 

11)2 

100 

81 

95 

93 

98 

300 

201 

192 

200 

257 

2:]8 

163 

26 

12 


2,701 


Non-infoctod. 

Trlchioous. 

44 

3 

46 

2 

62 

10 

r,G 

4 

210 

16 

179 

13 

96 

4 

80 

1 

94 

1 

89 

4 

90 

8 

275 

25 

188 

13 

187 

5 

184 

16 

252 

5 

225 

13 

154 

9 

25 

1 

11 

1 

2,547 


154 


Trichinous,  1  to  17'54. 
From  the  same  source  as  tlie  preceding : 


1881. 


LOT. 

Number  ex- 
amined. 

'   Non-infected. 

Trichinous. 

1 

127 

130 
153 

1         120 

127 
15(1 

7 

2 

3 

3 

3 

4 

120 

115 

5 

124 

KiO 

123 

'           99 

1 

6 

1 

7 

119 
127 

113 
123 

6 

8 

4 

9 

1 60 

152 

8 

10 

125 

lis 

7 

11 

127 

122 

5 

12 

122 

118 

4 

13 

124 
KiO 
122 

118 
100 
115 

6 

14 

0 

15 

7 

16 

120 

114 

6 

2,000 


1,929 


71 


Trichinous,  1  to  28. 


22  THE   DISEASES   OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

rrom  another  source : 


LOT. 

Number  ex- 
amined. 

Non-infected. 

Trichinous. 

1 

129 
130 
140 
105 

73 
130 
119 
127 
132 
182 

93 
128 
112 
124 

81 

84 
120 

59 

120 
123 
130 
102 

71 
125 
115 
120 
130 
175 

93 
125 
110 
120 

80 

80 
117 

57 

9 

2 

7 

3 

10 

4 

3 

5 

2 

6 

5 

7 

4 

8 

7 

9 

2 

10 

7 

11 

12 

3 

13 

2 

14 

4 

15 

1 

16 

4 

17 

3 

18 

2 

2,008 

2,199 

75 

Trichinous,  1  to  27. 


From  a  third  source  : 


LOT. 

Number  ex- 
amined. 

Non-infected. 

Trichinous. 

1 

105 

45 

65 

80 

61 

63 

96 

100 

100 

98 

90 

101 

121 

103 

76 

102 

130 

130 

131 

122 

85 

105 

45 

64 

78 

60 

60 

92 

99 

99 

96 

86 

98 

121 

100 

75 

100 

124 

125 

128 

120 

84 

2 

3 

1 

4 

2 

5 

1 

6 

3 

7 

4 

8 

1 

9 

1 

10 

2 

11 

4 

12 

3 

13 

14 

3 

15 

1 

16 

2 

17 

6 

18 

5 

19 

3 

20 

2 

21 

1 

2,004 

1,959 

45 

Trichinous,  1  to  44. 


TRICHINIASIS   OF   MAX   AND   ANIMALS. 


23 


KE8UME. 


Number  of  hogs 
exaiiilned. 

Non-infoctcd. 

Trichlnous. 

1879 

2,701 
2,000 
2,UG8 
2,004 

154 
71 
75 
45 

1  to  17 

1881.     Same  source 

1  to  28 

"         Seeoiul  source 

1  to  27 

*'         Tliir<l  source 

1  to  44 

Total 

8,773 

845 

1  to  25 

Tlie  above  figures  do  not  certainly  serve  to  support  the  words  of 
our  state  document,  that  there  are  "  less  trichinae  in  American  pork 
than  in  that  of  any  other  country."  They  do  speak  in  no  uncertain 
terms  that  our  Government  has  a  duty  which  it  owes  to  a  large 
national  interest,  and  that  is,  to  spare  no  expense  until  the  original 
soui'ce  whence  our  swine  become  invaded  be  discovered. 

As  has  been  already  said,  all  but  about  fifty  of  these  eighty- 
seven  hundred  hogs  were  bought  at  Chicago,  hence  were  Western 
hogs,  though  killed  and  examined  at  Boston.  They  were  purchased 
at  the  same  yards  M'hence  the  Chicago  packing-houses  get  that 
pork  which  our  State  Department  declares  to  be  so  "  free  from 
trichina?.*' 

Further,  the  percentage  of  infection  of  the  hogs  from  the  differ- 
ent sources  is  interesting,  but  not  very  instructive.  In  1879  we 
had  a  ratio  of  infection  of  1  to  17  hogs,  and  from  the  same  place 
1  to  28  in  1881 ;  while  by  the  hogs  from  a  third  source  we  had  an 
infection  of  1  to  44:.     Yet  they  were  all  Western  hogs. 

This  variation  in  the  ratio  of  infection  between  those  examined 
in  1879  and  1881  called  forth  the  foUowing  remarks  from  Dr.  Lor- 
ing,  the  present  Commissioner  of  Agriculture : 

"  A  veterinarian  of  Xew  England  informed  me  on  the  1-ith  of 
April  last  that  he  had  examined  portions  from  2,701  "Western  hogs, 
obtained  in  Boston,  154  of  which  he  found  infected,  i.  c.,  one  case 
to  each  l'ij%\  liogs  examined.  lie  tells  me  that  he  will  make  a 
statement  to  this  meeting  that  he  has  examined  portions  of  8,773 
Western  animals,  and  has  found  one  case  to  every  25  animals.  You 
will  8fe  that  there  is  a  great  dljferenre  between  hix  firf<t  {Aj)ril)  ex- 
amination and  this  one^  and  his  result  is  so  greatly  different  from, 
the  English  examination  of  our  hogs^  above  mentioned,  and  fto  much 
above  any  linown  jyroportion  among  animals  of  every  other  country, 
that  I  can  not  hut  ent^:rtain  doubt'*  of  the  value  of  his  examinOr 

timy  * 

*  See  letter  to  Ucaltb  Congress,  Sarannah,  1881. 


24  THE   DISEASES   OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

The  Englisli  examination  spoken  of  reads  as  follows : 

"  Tlie  insjpectors  of  the  Yeterinary  Department  examined  two 
hundred  and  seventy-nine  separate  portions  of  swine'' s  flesh,  which 
were  sent  from  Liverpool^  and  detected  living  trichince  in  three 
specimens''''  (1  to  93). 

As  to  the  discrepancy  spoken  of  between  the  results  of  my  ex- 
aminations, made  about  a  year  apart :  it  is  not  greater  than  that 
between  any  two  lots  taken  at  random  in  the  same  examination,  nor 
so  great  as  between  very  many  lots  examined  on  two  consecutive 
days;  for  instance,  in  my  series  of  1881,  lot  14  (source  the  same 
as  in.  1879)  consisted  of  100  pieces,  of  which  none  were  infected, 
while  of  lot  13,  124  pieces,  six  were  trichinous. 

In  two  different  epidemics  of  small-pox,  the  number  of  deaths 
is  never  the  same,  or  even  the  number  of  cases.  Are  we,  then,  to 
say  a  later  invasion  is  not  small-pox,  because  the  number  of  cases  or 
deaths  is  less  or  more  than  in  a  previous  ?  I  never  for  a  moment 
expected  similar  results,  and  should  have  been  as  pleased  to  find 
none  as  any  one  in  the  country. 

"With  reference  to  the  English  examination,  1  to  93,  it  is  greater 
Tjy  far  than  the  i^atio  of  infection  found  in  the  hogs  of  any 
other  country,  and  greater  than  I  found  in  some  lots  examined  hy 
me  ^  for  instance,  lots  1,  2,  3,  4,  of  my  third  series,  1881,  con- 
tained, respect'ively,  105,  45,  65,  and  SO  specimens,  representing  295 
hogs,  of  which  three  were  trichinous,  1  to  98.  Further,  we  do  not 
know  the  parts  that  the  English  examined ;  had  they  been  pillars 
of  the  diaphragm,  the  proportion  might  have  been  greater. 

As  to  the  correctness  of  my  results,  I  will  simply  say  that  Dr. 
Folsom,  of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Health,  went  over  a  large 
part  of  those  examined  in  1879,  and  that  comj)etent  physicians  and 
a  gentleman  whom  I  educated  to  work  with  me,  continually  revised 
my  other  specimens  as  I  examined  them. 

Again,  if  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  doubts  my  results, 
let  him  send  a  competent  man,  or  men,  here,  and  examine  with  me 
the  same  specimens,  be  it  one  or  ten  thousand,  and  I  venture  to  say 
we  shall  find  a  percentage  of  infection  larger  than  that  I'eported  in 
any  other  country,  and  large  enough  to  satisfy  any  one. 

Further,  the  Germans  might  well  doubt  the  figures  of  their  own 
examinations,  as,  from  the  Prussian  statistics,  we  see  the  ratio  of 
infection  is  steadily  augmenting. 

I  wish  now  to  refer  to  the  report  of  Dr.  Jansen  T.  Payne,*  from 
which  I  quote  the  following : 

*  Report  of  the  American  Public  Health  Association,  1881. 


TRICniXIASIS   OF   MAX   AND    ANIMALS.  25 

"  The  metliod  of  couductiii^  the  resoarclies  was  as  follows  :  '  The 
extlCujiles  procured  one  afteniuon  were  examined  the  following  day 
by  the  aid  of  a  good  microscope,  capable  of  magnifying  objects  two 
hundred  diameters.  A  low  i)ower  was  found  to  yive  greater  satis- 
faction than  a  higher  one  could  have  dune,  and  obsetniers  in  this 
field  would  do  loell  to  hear  this  in  mind.  WJt£n  it  is  taken  into  ac- 
count that  each  of  the  specimens  had  to  le  separated  into  minute 
shreds  hefore  they  were  placed  upon  the  stage  of  the  mhyroscope,  and 
consider  the  number  of  fibers  examiiwd  in  such  cases  ^  "  (he  exam- 
ined in  all  21, GOO  specimens  from  5,400  hogs),  ^^^  it  will  readily 
be  perceived  that  it  is  impossible  to  make  anything  like  an  ac- 
curate guess  as  to  the  whole  number  of  pncccs  of  rnuscle-fiJber  ex- 
amined.''  " 

Eesiilt :  Is  uml^er  examined,  5,400  ;  trichinous,  22. 

'*  By  this  series  of  examinations,  it  has  been  ascertained  that 
Southern-bred  hogs  are  free  from  trichince.''^ 

If  tliere  is  anything  I  dislike  to  do,  it  is  to  criticise  the  work  of 
another  observer;  but  one  would  like  to  know  if  two  hundred  di- 
ameters ia  considered  a  low  power.  For  myself,  when  looking  for 
trichinju,  should  I  use  such  a  power,  I  should  not  expect  to  find 
many  trichina?,  but  boa-constrictors  ;  in  fact,  many  would  escape 
me.  The  male  trichina  measures  one  eighteenth,  the  female  one 
eighth  of  an  inch,  in  length — magnified  two  hundred  diameters, 
what  would  one  have  ? 

Again,  dividing  specimens  into  shreds  may  be  highly  technical, 
but  eminently  unpractical ;  for  with  crush-specimens  one  can  easily 
recognize  the  parasite,  and  it  is  done  (juiekly ;  while  in  this  way, 
and  with  such  a  high  power  as  two  hundred  diametei-s,  one  would  be 
sure  to  miss  many. 

I  doubt  the  statement  that  "  Southern  hogs  are  free  from  trichi- 
ncB^^  as  much  as  I  do  that  ^^ corti-f ceding"  has  anything  to  do  with 
trichiniasis. 

But  I'oston  is  not  the  place  for  anything  but  statistical  examina- 
tions. We  must  go  nearer  to  the  fountain-head.  At  Chicago  it 
would  be  possible  to  examine  large  lots  of  hogs  that  have  come 
directly  from  the  breeder  or  fattener  to  the  packer.  Here  lots 
could  be  examined  and  traced  to  the  breeder.  If  highly  infected, 
it  would  be  ea-^^y  to  go  to  such  places  and  make  all  manner  of  ex- 
aminations of  the  remaining  hogs,  of  the  earth,  worms,  grubs,  etc. 
Some  unknown  living  thing  lodges  trichinae  before  they  enter  the 
porcine  organism.  The  scientific  questions  are  :  "What  is  it  ?  where 
is  it  ?  and  what  are  its  modes  of  life  \ 


26  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

These  tilings  discovered — and  they  7nust  be — we  can  j)ut  an  end 
to  porcine  trichiniasis,  and  every  other  kind. 

American  Hogs  much  more  Infected  than  Continental. 

A  comparison  of  the  statistics  here  given  shows  beyond  all  ques- 
tion that  American  hogs  are  more  liable  to  trichiniasis  than  those  of 
Germany ;  for  we  have  seen  that  in  those  examined  at  Rostock  we 
had  but  1  to  every  3,543 ;  at  Braunschweig,  1  to  8,963 ;  in  Prussia, 
1  to  2,032,  as  trichinous ;  while  of  the  American  examinations, 
from  authentic  sources,  we  have  28  out  of  1,394,  or  1  to  50 ;  8 
out  of  100,  and  345  out  of  8,773,  or  1  to  25,  as  infected.  These 
were  Western  hogs,  yet  no  one  well  acquainted  with  the  circum- 
stances would,  I  think,  assert  that  the  hygienic  conditions  under 
which  our  Western  swine  are  raised  are  not  superior  to  those  of  the 
famed  "  home-fed  porkers  "  of  the  small  New  England  farmer,  raised, 
as  they  only  too  often  are,  in  dark,  loathsome,  poorly  ventilated 
pens,  only  too  frequently  under  stables,  with  the  house-vaults  and 
sink-drains  emptying  into  them, 

I  should  here  mention  that  it  has  seemed  impossible  to  make 
any  valuable  examinations  of  Massachusetts-raised  hogs,  there  being 
no  authorities  to  co-operate  with  me  in  procuring  si^ecimens.  It 
will  finally  become  necessary  for  each  State  to  organize  an  exact 
statistical  examination  of  the  hogs  raised  within  its  limits,  as  to  the 
proportion  infected  with  trichinae. 

As  to  German  hogs,  whoever  has  been  upon  a  tour  of  observa- 
tion through  the  agricultural  districts  of  Germany,  must  have  been 
most  forcibly  struck  with  the  absurd  non-hygienic  conditions  under 
which,  not  only  hogs,  but  all  the  domestic  animals  are,  in  general, 
raised,  in  comparison  with  those  of  our  own  country,  especially  of 
the  great  stock-raising  West. 

In  making  examinations  of  hogs,  with  reference  to  tracing  them 
back  to  the  raiser,  an  important  question  will  be  whether  the  great- 
est proportion  of  trichiniasis  is  found  among  the  hogs  fed  at  the 
large  distilleries,  or  under  the  apparently  more  favorable  open-air 
feeding  of  the  farmer ;  or,  again,  as  many  farmers  pasture  their  hogs 
in  woods,  etc.,  before  the  corn  is  ready  for  fattening,  is  it  among 
such  that  we  find  more  trichiniasis  than  among  those  kept  con- 
stantly in  pens  ?  It  would  also  be  of  interest,  and  perhajis  of  practi- 
cal value,  to  know  if  the  wild  swine  of  our  Southern  forests  are  much 
invaded,  as  well  as  the  peccaries  of  Mexico  and  South  America. 
The  following  freely  made  translations  of  jDublished  remarks  of  an 
eminent  German,  will  show  the  opinions  which  are  gaining  ground 


TRICniXIASIS   OF   MAX   AND   ANIMALS.  07 

in  Germany  -with  regard  to  our  pork,  and  also  how  well  i)osted 
even  specialists  are  with  reference  to  the  true  conditions  in  this 
conntry. 

Bollinger*  (pathologist  of  the  Veterinary  School  at  Munich), 
writing  on  the  "  Triehinic  in  American  rork,"  in  a  review  of  an 
article  by  Iloepcr  on  the  same  subject,  says :  "  The  author  of  the 
paper  '  Die  Trichinen  der  americanischen  Schinken '  has  made 
numerous  examinations  in  order  to  contradict  the  opinion  held  in 
America "  (by  whom  ?)  "  that  the  trichinae  of  American  ])ork  are 
an  entirely  ditferent  species  from  those  found  in  the  swine  of  Ger- 
many, and  are  harmless.  Also  to  contradict  the  opinion  that  the 
peculiar  process  which  'American  sugar-cured  liams'  are  passed 
through,  is  sutHcient  to  render  the  parasites  harndess." 

lie  fonnd  both  these  assertions  without  foundation.  The  cm-ing 
process  does  not  in  all  cases  kill  the  trichina?  in  the  deeper  seated 
parts  of  the  ham. 

The  following  absolutely  erroneous  explanation  is  given  for  the 
greater  proportion  of  trichiniasis  in  our  hogs  in  comparison  with 
those  of  Germany : 

"The  swine  that  arc  BROuonx  to  the  lxug-e  Attiericcui  slaughter- 
houses are  allowed  to  feed  upon  the  refuse  from  slaughtered  swine, 
and  in  this  way  have  tbie  and  opportunity  to  infect  thejnselves. 
Such  infected  sicine  are  themselves  slaughtered,  and  again  give  cause 
to  infection  of  those  that  remain,  which  may  have  arrived  loiter. 
Accordingly,  this  evil  must  go  on  constantly  extending,  and  all  j)er- 
sons  must  earnedly  he  warned  against  the  consu)njjtio?i  of  raw 
Ainerican  pork  J'' 

This  German  author  certainly  betrays  ignorance  of  the  true 
conditions  at  any  large  American  packing-house.  The  refuse  from 
the  slaughtered  sicine  is  never  fed  to  other  swine  that  may  be  at 
such  places,  at  any  large  packing-house  in  this  country.  It  is  sold 
for  fertilizing  purposes,  or  prepared  for  that  jnirpose,  and  that 
only. 

According  to  the  best  German  authorities,  it  takes  from  five  to 
seven  days  for  the  newly  introduced  trichina^  to  bring  forth  young. 
No  large  American  packing-house  keeps  a  lot  of  swine  on  hand  for 
from  five  to  seven  days,  for  they  are  killed  as  soon  after  arrival  ns 
possible.  It  would  be  impossible  for  them  to  kill  from  one  to  three 
thousand  a  day  and  do  otherwise.  AVliile  these  iu«isertions  are  abso- 
lutely false  with  reference  to  the  large  ])a('king-houscs,  they  are  as 
strictly  true,  not  only  of  many  smaller  establishments,  where  hogs 
*  "  Deutsche  Zeitschrift  f.  Thiemicdicin,"  vol.  i,  p.  220. 


28  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

are  killed  for  home  consumption,  but  also  where  they  are  fattened 
and  killed  by  the  farmer,  or  raised  for  the  use  of  his  family. 

This  report  says  further ;  "  This  refuse  from  slaughtered  sioine 
at  such  large  estdblishments  is  sold  to  the  neighboring  farmers  as 
food  to  fatten  their  swine,  and  thus  helps  to  swell  the  jpercentage  of 
trichiniasis  in  American  hogs." 

This  is  fcdse  also  ! 

The  report  ends  as  follows :  "  It  is  therefore  right  to  warn  the 
people  against  the  consumption  of  American  pork" — and  recom- 
mends the  most  stringent  microscopic  examination  of  the  same. 

The  Disease  in  Swine.* 

ITumerous  feeding  experiments  with  trichinous  flesh  were  made 
at  the  Berlin  school,  the  results  being  given  in  an  able  j^aper  by 
Professor  Mueller.  It  was  proved  that  the  consumption  of  such 
flesh  by  swine,  with  the  sequential  development  of  the  embryos  in 
their  intestines,  and  their  migration  and  lodgment  in  the  muscles, 
may  indeed  cause  disease,  but  that  the  phenomena  of  the  same  have 
neither  that  constancy  nor  distinctness  of  character  which  will  ad- 
mit of  its  recognition  during  the  life  of  the  animal. 

All  the  swine  thus  fed  became  ill  within  a  few  days  after  con- 
suming the  meat. 

The  following  were  the  most  constant  phenomena  j)resented : 

Diarrhoea,  but  not  constant,  being  frequently  interrupted  by  the 
passage  of  more  solid  f[fices;  sometimes  it  did  not  come  to  pass 
at  all. 

Phenomena,  indicating  abdominal  pains,  were  frequently  ob- 
served ;  such  as  uneasiness,  burying  themselves  in  the  straw,  etc. 

Such  phenomena,  either  singly  or  collectively,  may  be  observed 
in  swine,  entirely  aside  from  any  anticipatory  trichin-infection. 
They  simply  indicate  the  action  of  some  irritant  within  the  intes- 
tinal canal,  and  in  this  case,  it  being  trichinae,  if  the  swine  die,  or 
are  killed,  we  should  have  the  same  phenomena  as  in  an  intestinal 
catarrh  of  like  grade,  plus  the  trichinse,  which  could  not,  however, 
be  recognized  macroscopically. 

"With  the  gradual  cessation  of  the  migration  by  the  trichinae,  the 
abdominal  symptoms  become  less  marked,  and  finally  disappear,  to 
be  followed  by  those  indicating  some  disturbance  of  the  motor 
functions.  If  the  latter  do  not  lead  to  death,  they  in  their  turn 
gradually  cease  with  the  encapsulation  of  the  parasites. 

Although  the  presence  of  trichinte  within  the  intestines  causes 
*  Taken  from  the  "Magazin  f.  d.  gesammte  Thierheilkunde,"  vol.  xxxi,  p.  6. 


TRICniNIASIS  OF  MAN'   AND   ANIMALS.  OQ 

diarrhoea,  yet,  in  these  animals,  it  was  impossible  to  find  any  em- 
bryos in  their  fivces. 

This  by  no  means  excludes  the  possibility  of  finding  them  in 
other  cases  ;  yet  their  passage  away  with  the  feeces  must  in  a  meas- 
ure be  retarded  from  their  being  buried  in  a  profuse  layer  of  mu- 
cus, which  is  the  product  of  tlie  irritation  caused  by  them. 

In  none  of  these  swine  was  it  possible  to  discover  anything 
resendding  the  subcutaneous  a'dema  wliich  comes  to  jiass  in  man 
under  the  same  circumstances,  and  which  serves  essentially  to  the 
confirmation  of  the  diagnosis. 

Leisering,  of  Dresden,  has  also  made  numerous  experiments 
with  swine,  of  the  same  nature.* 

lie  says :  "  One  can  not  speak  of  a  trichin-disease  in  swine, 
which  is  characterized  by  distinct  and  pathognomonic  phenomena. 
In  this  regard  the  trichinae  deport  themselves  similarly  to  the  cysti- 
cerci,  measles." 

Gerlach  f  says  : 

a.  "About  two  fifths  of  the  hogs  fed  were  either  not  affected 
or  but  slightly  indisposed ;  the  remaining  three  fifths  were  visibly 
sick. 

h.  "  The  light  cases  presented  nothing  of  diagnostic  value,  while 
in  the  severe  ones  the  symptoms  were  of  such  a  character  that, 
with  the  aid  of  the  scalpel  and  microscope,  a  diagnosis  could  be 
made." 

(This  is  no  more  than  saying  that,  with  dian'hoea  and  abdominal 
pains,  followed  l\v  disturbances  in  the  motor  functions,  the  scalpel 
and  microsco])e  would  reveal  the  true  cause,  if  trichinae.) 

c.  "  After  an  attack  of  trichiniasis,  the  hog  again  becomes  well, 
and  can  be  raised  and  fattened,  as  if  nothing  had  hajipcned. 

i1.  "  In  cases  which  apparently  pass  over  symjitondess,  as  the 
animal  betrays  but  slight  constitutional  disturbances,  the  infection 
is  still  suflicient  to  make  the  flesh  a  dangerous  article  of  food. 

e.  ''  Hogs  are  most  susceptible  to  trichin-invasion  in  early  age. 
Old  hogs  are  not  easily  infected ;  i.  e.,  the  muscles  are  not  very 
much  invaded  by  the  parasites. 

f.  ''Death  results  in  over  one  half  of  the  extremely  severe  cases. 

g.  "  Death  is  caused  by  means  of  intestinal  irritation,  as  well  as 
the  severe  muscular  disturbances.  Forty-one  per  cent  die  by  the 
former,  and  fifty-nine  by  the  latter." 

That  trichinre  can  only  gain  entrance  to  an  organism  by  means 
of  the  mouth  and  alimentary  canal  is  beyond  all  question. 
*  "Bcricht  u.  d.  veterinair  Wcscn  im  Sachscn,"  18C2,  p.  118.  f  "  Die  Trichincn." 


30  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

Notwithstanding  tlie  apparent  negation  of  the  quoted  Berlin 
experiments,  we  have  the  very  highest  authorities  affirming,  on  the 
strength  of  positive  observations,  that  intestinal  and  eiribryonal 
trichinoi  do  leave  the  invaded  organism  with  thefcBces. 

Leuckart  says :  "  As  the  usually  matured  trichinae  accumulate  in 
great  numbers  in  the  intestines,  and  as  the  irritation  caused  by 
them  leads  to  the  development  of  a  more  or  less  intense  diarrhoea, 
it  is  evident  that  the  young  must  be  taken  up  and  pass  oS  with  the 
faeces ;  and  not  only  free  embryos,  but  also  pregnant  females,  are 
subjected  to  this  removal,  which  has  been  sufficiently  attested  by 
my  own  observations  and  those  of  Yogel,  Kuhn,  Gerlach,  and 
others.  This  form  of  migration,  under  favorable  circumstances, 
also  contributes  to  the  further  distribution  of  trichinae.  Ilaubner 
and  Gerlach  give  cases  where  they  intentionally  caused  the  invasion 
of  young — non-infected — swine  by  causing  them  to  live  in  the  same 
pens  with  known  infected  ones.  Such  embryos  and  pregnant  fe- 
males become  mixed  with  the  manure  and  bedding  of  the  hog-pens 
or  on  the  grass  of  pastures,  and  may  be  taken  up  by  other  swine,  or 
even  by  the  original  autosites,  thereby  leading  to  renewed  inva- 
sion." 

In  the  above  we  have  a  course  of  invasion  in  which  the  swine 
are  the  only  factors. 

Is  there  no  other  factor  (or  factors)  in  the  question  ?  We  have 
previously  remarked  that  wild  swine  have  been  found  trichinous ; 
also  that  rats,  dogs,  foxes,  and  other  wild  animals  serve  as  autosites 
to  them. 

Of  all  animals  in  which  these  parasites  have  been  found,  none 
have  that  interest,  aside  from  swine,  to  the  hygienist  and  patholo- 
gist which  is  enjoyed  by  the  rat,  on  account  of  a  hypothetical  etio- 
logical connection  between  the  trichinae  which  infest  them  and 
those  in  swine. 

Leisering  ajDpears  to  have  been  the  originator  of  this  hypothesis. 

The  following  statistics  will  suffice  to  show  that  the  rat  is  even 
more  favored  with  trichiniasis  than  swine : 

Of  704  rats  from  different  parts  of  Germany,  59  were  found 
trichinous — 8*3  per  cent. 

Of  208  rats  from  German  knackers,  46  were  found  trichinous — 
22*1  per  cent. 

Of  224  rats  from  German  slaughter-houses,  12  were  found  tri- 
chinous— 6  per  cent. 

Of  272  rats  from  other  places,  1  was  found  trichinous — 0"3  per 
cent. 


TRICniXLVSIS   OF   MAX   AND   ANIMALS.  31 

Of  326  rats  from  other  places,  30  were  found  tricliinous — 11  per 
cent. 

Of  51  rats  caught  at  a  knacker  establishment  at  Spectacle  Island, 
Boston  Harbor,  I  found  39  trichinous. 

The  jiruprietors  of  this  place  kindly  gave  ine  opportunity  to 
examine  twenty-eight  hogs,  which  had  been  kept  and  fattened  by 
them  at  the  island  in  question.  Noiie  were  found  trichinous.  These 
hogs  I'eceived  no  city  sioill  of  anu  hind.  What  fe><h  they  received 
had  been  subjected  to  thelwat  necessary  to  extract  the  fats;  other- 
toisey  they  received  nothing  hut  corn-meal. 

Fort y  rats  caught  at  one  of  the  large  packing-houses  near  Boston 
were  all  found  triahinous. 

Of  sixty  rats  caught  for  me  at  different  stables  in  the  city  of  Bos- 
ton, whe?'e  no  hogs  icei'e  or  had  been  kept,  but  six  contained  trichinw. 

I  can  not  see  any  just  grounds  for  accepting  the  rat-infection 
theory ;  i.  e.,  that  swine  become  invaded  in  the  majority  of  cases 
from  eating  trichin-invadcd  rats.  In  fact,  I  am  strongly  inclined 
to  think  that  fpiitc  the  contrary  is  the  case ;  though  I  willingly 
admit  that  an  occasional  hog  may  become  invaded  in  this  manner. 
My  own  observations  would  seem  to  j)rove  that  whenever  rat.s  have 
opportunity  to  get  at  the  trimmings  or  refuse  of  slaughtered  hogs, 
there  the  rats  will  be  found  to  be  most  profusely  trichinous ;  while 
in  other  localities  it  will  not  be  so. 

Admitting  that  an  occasional  rat  may  lead  to  trichin  invasion 
among  hogs,  we  have  still  the  open  question,  Is  there  no  common 
source  from  which  not  only  swine  and  rats,  but  icild  animals,  may 
derive  this  parasite?  As,  according  to  my  own  observation  upon 
■American  pork,  and  my  very  limited  examinations  of  American 
rats,  they  are  both  more  largely  invaded  by  trichinae  than  similar 
animals  in  Gennany,  it  seems  as  if  here  in  America  were  thi:  place 
to  study  and  decide  these  important  questions. 

It  will  not  do  for  ns  to  falsify  or  ignore  true  facts.  The  man- 
ner hitherto  adoj)ted  of  asserting,  by  way  of  pure  negation,  that 
'■^American  pork  ha^  no  trichina^,"  as  the  pork  interest  has  done, 
will  not  do.  TVe  must  stand  on  facts  gained  bv  accurate  and  trust- 
worthy  observers.  We  must  accept  them.  AVe  must  search  for 
the  cause.  Any  other  course  is  absurd,  and  equally  ruinous  to  self- 
respect. 

Prevention  of  Trichin.e  in  S^^'INE. 

1.  Boards  of  health  should  take  means,  looking  to  the  better 
education  of  the  people  in  relation  to  hog-raising,  as  well  as  all  the 
principles  of  animal  hygiene. 


32  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

2.  Boards  of  liealtli  should  instigate  exact  statistical  researches 
into  tlie  percentage  of  trichiniasis  among  swine  raised  in  their  re- 
spective States,  as  well  as  the  hygienic  conditions  under  which  hogs 
are  raised,  in  relation  to  this  and  other  diseases. 

3.  Continued  examinations  of  rats  should  be  made  in  all  parts 
of  the  country,  and  their  slaughter  encouraged  in  every  legal  way. 
In  this  regard  we  can  look  upon  the  rat-pit  as  serving  a  public  pur- 
pose ;  and  the  rat-invasion  theory,  with  reference  to  hogs,  will  re- 
ceive a  final  settlement. 

4.  All  sick  swine  should  be  peremptorily  isolated  from  healthy 
ones,  under  the  supervision  of  a  competent  veterinary  inspector. 

5.  All  swine  suffering  from  diarrhoea  should  be  isolated,  and 
singly.  The  greatest  care  should  be  taken  in  cleansing  the  pens  of 
such  sw^ine  from  all  fecal  masses  and  refuse. 

a.  The  fseces  from  such  swine  should  be  subjected  to  micro- 
scopic examination. 

h.  On  cessation  of  the  diarrhoea,  whether  motor  disturbances 
appear  or  not,  the  muscles,  tongue,  etc.,  should  be  harpooned,  and 
the  specimens  thus  gained  subjected  to  microscopic  examination. 

6.  Hogs  in  which  trichinse  had  been  found  should  be  branded 
and  fattened  singly,  or  together ;  but  they  should  never  be  allowed 
to  be  sold  for  human  food.     Their  lard  could  be  tried  out  and  sold. 

7.  All  hog-pens  should  be  kept  scrupulously  clean,  and  the  turn- 
ing of  compost-heaps,  or  the  drains  from  water-closets  or  houses. 
Into  hog-pens  should  be  forbidden  by  law. 

8.  Feeding  the  offal  from  slaughtered  swine  to  others,  cooked  or 
uncooked,  or  having  slaughter-houses  over  places  where  swine  are 
kept,  should  be  forbidden  by  law. 

9.  Each  State  should  have  a  board  of  animal  hygiene,  and  a  corps 
of  competently  educated  veterinary  police. 

The  Microscopic  Examiitation  of  Pork. 

Numerous  elaborate  essays  have  been  written  upon  this  subject ; 
but  the  entire  process  is  so  easy  and  simple,  that  such  extended 
labor  can  well  be  looked  upon  as  useless. 

Among  the  first,  and  at  the  same  time  most  profusely  invaded 
muscles,  are  the  so-called  "pillars  of  the  diaphragm."  They  are 
always  to  be  found  as  two  small  stumps  of  muscles — flesh — imme- 
diately below  the  kidneys  in  the  dressed  hog  when  hung  up  to 
"  cool  out,"  or  in  front  of  them  when  the  hog  is  laid  down.  If 
there  are  any  trichinse  in  the  organism,  examples  will  surely  be 
found  here.     These  pieces  belong  to  the  trimmings,  and  their  re- 


TRICniNIASIS  OF  MAN  AND   ANIMALS. 


33 


moval  in  no  way  interferes  witli  tlie  value  or  ajipearanee  of  the 
dressed  lio<;f. 

Although  a  power  of  fifteen  to  twenty  diameters  is  sufficient  to 
demonstrate  the  presence  of  trichinte  to  a  jirofieient  examiner,  still 
it  is  much  easier  and  safer  to  use  one  of  from  fifty  to  seventy-five. 

Fair  microsco2>es,  but  by  no  means  as  convenient  as  the  Ilartnach 
model  of  Continental  makei*s,  are  to  be  had  from  Americans  at  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  dollars.  A  large  table  to  the  microscope  is  a  con- 
venience. 

A  few  glass  slides,  or  object-glasses,  and  some  strong  covering- 
glasses,  a  pair  of  small  curved  scissors,  and  two  teasing-needles,  are 
all  that  is  necessary  to  complete  the  outfit. 

The  first  step  is  to  take  a  piece  of  muscle  and  cut  into  its  sub- 
stance, in  order  to  have  it  as  moist  as  possible,  and  with  the  curved 
scissors  cut  several  thin  slices  lengthwise  to  the  fil)ers,  and  with  a 
needle  place  them  on  the  object-glass  a  little  distance  apart;  the 


,rf'f.'':Cit/'  • '  rr/r  ■■ 


I 


Fio. 


Fio.  1. — Fresh  Trichinous  Invasion. 


^Leuckan.; 


covering-glass  is  then  to  be  placed  upon  them  and  gently  pressed 
with  a  slight,  rolling  motion,  which  will  invariably  make  the  speci- 
mens thin  enough  for  examination. 
3 


34: 


THE  DISEASES   OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 


It  is  not  necessary  to  cleanse  the  glasses  for  each  specimen  to  be 
examined. 

To  determine  if  the  trichinae  still  live,  place  the  object-glass  over 
heat — a  spirit-lamp — for  a  second,  enough  to  warm  the  slide,  and 
then  place  it  under  the  microscope,  and  they  will  be  seen  to  move 
in  their  ca^^sules. 

Salted  pork  is  best  examined  by  cutting  it  into  thin  pieces  and 
soaking  for  a  time,  although  the  specimens  can  be  at  once  placed  in 
water  for  a  few  moments. 

Objects  which  may  be  mistaken  fob  Tkichin^,  or  not  eecog- 

nized  as  such. 

It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  the  capsules  become  abnor- 
mally thickened,  and  the  parasites  dead  within  them.  They  do  not 
then  present  the  same  appearances  that  are  generally  observed  under 
normal  conditions. 


Fig.  3.  —  Encapsuled     Concretions 
WITH  Dead  Embryos  in  them. 


Fig.  4.  —  Trichina -Capsules  with 
Calcified  and  Disintegrated  Con- 
tents. 


In  other  cases  the  calcification  is  of  such  a  character  as  to  almost 
entirely  change  the  appearance  of  both  capsule  and  contents. 

Treatment  of  such  capsules  with  hydrochloric  acid  will  render 
the  diagnosis  easier. 


TRICUIXUSIS   OF  MAX   AXD   ANIMALS.  35 

In  some  cases  cysticerci,  measles,  perish  and  become  calcified. 
These  objects  are  somewhat  larger  than  trichina-capsules,  and  often 
contain  a  caseous  mass. 

The  sacs  of  Raiuey,  or,  as  they  are  also  termed,  "  psorospermije," 
are  elono^ated  granulous  bodies,  like  the  triehime,  situated  wii/nn 
the  sarcolemnia  of  the  liber.  Their  true  nature  or  pathological  im- 
portance is  not  yet  well  determined. 

Some    valuable    diagnostic 
points  are,  that  in  the  latter —  i  '^  .  ,       "     '     '  ^r) 

trichinai — the  striation  of  the 
fiber  is  entirely  destroyed  with- 
in the  capsule,  while  by  i)soro- 
sperms  it  is  retained,  limiting 

the  objects  laterally,  and  con-  ' 

tinning  directly  from  their  ex- 
tremities. 

Bruch,Virchow,  and  Leuck- 

art    have     described     peculiar     ,.      r     r.  n    -    xr 

_   ■»  iio.   5. — r<c;iu)srKKMS  in  a  Hugs  Mlscle. 

roundish  or  oval  objects  of  a  (Leuckart  ) 

whitish   color,   having  varying 

dimensions,  which  sometimes  appear  in  the  flesh  of  hams,  and  which 

have  been  demonstrated  to  consist  of  agglomerates  of  needle-like 

crystals.     They  fill  the  fiber  to  a  variable  degree  without  otherwise 

disturbing  its  contents,  and  disappear  upon  the  addition  of  muriatic 

acid,  the  normal  striation  again  becoming  visible. 

TmcnixiAsis  in  Max. 

It  is  not  my  purpose  to  write  an  essay  on  the  pathology  of 
trichiniasis,  either  in  man  or  animals,  but  to  give  the  necessary 
natural  historical  facts  of  its  life,  and  to  illustrate  its  jirevalence, 
with  short  notices  of  the  phenomena  of  the  disease  in  the  above 
species.  Treatment  being  so  unsuccessful,  it  would  be  folly  to  notice 
it,  and  it  also  belongs  more  to  works  on  medicine  than  in  an  essay 
on  hygiene,  or  a  contribution  to  preventive  medicine. 

It  has  been  previously  mentioned  that  the  honor  of  confirming 
the  causal  nexus  between  trichina?  in  j)ork  and  in  man  belongs  to 
Dr.  2ienker  of  Dresden,  Germany.  This  was  in  the  case  of  a  ser- 
vant-girl, admitted  to  the  city  hospital  at  Dresden,  as  a  typhus 
patient.  She  died,  her  nmscles  being  found  completely  infected 
with  trichinse.  At  the  same  time  that  she  became  ill,  other  per- 
sons of  the  same  family,  and  the  butcher  that  slaughtered  a  hog 
for  them,  were  ill   also,  but   in  a  modified  form.      An   examina- 


36  THE   DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

tion  of  the  pork  at  the  house  revealed  the  presence  of  numerous 
trichinae. 

Thudicum  *  suras  up  the  principal  phenomena  of  trichiniasis  in 
man  as  follows :  "  Sudden  swelling  of  the  face,  particularly  of  the 
eyelids,  after  the  patient  has  for  some  days  felt  prostrate  and  lost 
his  appetite — the  swelling  causes  only  a  sense  of  tension,  but  no 
pain — fever,  quick  pulse,  copious  perspiration,  which  not  rarely  has 
a  repugnant  odor ;  painf ulness  and  immobility  of  the  arms  and  legs  ; 
the  muscles  are  swelled  and  contracted,  and  give  great  pain  on  being 
moved,  or  pressed  severely ;  in  the  worst  cases  the  entire  body  is 
perfectly  immovable  and  highly  sensitive  ;  there  is  diaiThcea,  with  a 
red,  somewhat  coated  tongue,  inclined  to  dryness ;  when  the  swell- 
ing of  the  face  has  subsided,  oedema  of  the  feet,  legs,  and  thighs 
comes  on.  Shortly  afterward  anasarca  and  swelling  over  the  trunk 
makes  its  appearance." 

From  the  time  of  Zenker's  case,  numerous  others  have  come  to 
pass  in  different  countries,  and  epidemics  have  caused  a  shudder  of 
horror  among  reflecting  people. 

Epidemics  have  been  reported  at  Corbach,  1860  ;  Plauen,  1861- 
'62;  Calbe,  1862;  Hallstadt,  1862-'63  ;  Hanover,  1864 ;  Dresden, 
1864 ;  and  other  places  in  Germany.  The  most  remarkable  outbreak 
is  that  of  Hedersleben,  a  place  of  some  two  thousand  inhabitants, 
of  whom  337  became  sick  at  one  time,  and  101  died. 

Cobbold  communicated  to  Heller  that  the  first  authentic  case  of 
the  disease,  during  life  in  man,  occurred  in  England  in  1871. 

"We  have  mentioned  several  cases  illustrating  the  intra-vital  dis- 
covery of  the  parasites  in  human  beings  on  the  excision  of  tumors, 
and  numerous  others  are  reported  in  medical  literature. 

Forty  persons  became  infected  with  trichinos  at  one  time  at 
Bremen  from,  it  is  said,  eating  American  pork. 

At  Lissa,f  five  members  of  one  family  became  infected  from 
eating  of  a  ham  which,  it  was  said,  had  been  pickled,  smoked,  and 
boiled  for  two  hours. 

A  poor  woman ;{:  became  trichinous  from  eating  the  flesh  of  a 
dog,  to  which  her  necessities  had  driven  her. 

At  Linden,*  a  suburb  of  Hanover,  four  hundred  persons  were  dis- 
eased at  one  time,  and  twenty-one  died  from  eating  trichinous  pork. 

Dr.  Keifer,  |!  of  Detroit,  reports  a  fatal  case  of  this  disease,  the 
patient  dying  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  week. 

*  "  Seventh  Report  of  the  Privy  Council,"  London,  1865. 

f  "Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,"  vol.  xc,  p.  491 ;  vol.  xci,  pp.  471  and  627; 
vol.  1,  p.  208.  X  Ibid.  *  Ibid.  J  Ibid. 


TRlCniNIASIS   OF    MAN   AND   ANIMALS.  37 

Dr.  Ilerr,  of  Dubuque,  Iowa,  reports  fifteen  eases  and  five  deaths 
from  eating  raw  smoked  ham  made  into  sausages. 

Several  cases  are  reported  for  Phihidelphia  in  the  '*  American 
Journal  of  Sciences.'' 

In  January,  18S1,  a  case  occurred  at  Blackwell's  Island,  Xew 
York.  Two  cases  were  reported  at  Chicago  during  the  same  month, 
and  two  at  Milwaukee. 

Dr.  Germer,  health-officer  at  Erie,  Pennsylvania,  reports  by  letter 
of  January  27,  1881,  that  the  preceding  Christmas  he  discovered 
seven  cases  in  a  place  eight  miles  distant,  which  were  traced  to  the 
eating  of  home  fed  and  cured  pork. 

The  most  interesting  American  case  is  one  that  occurred  at 
Brooklyn,  Long  Island,  September,  1879.  Seven  of  a  family  were 
affected,  and  two  persons  died  from  the  disease.  This  case  came  to 
trial  at  Brooklyn,  the  family  suing  a  packing-house  from  which 
they  had  bought  a  portion  of  a  ham  two  days  previous  to  the  erup- 
tion of  the  disease.  As  they  had  been  continually  in  the  habit  of 
eating  raw  ham  and  sausages,  and  as  they  had  purchased  the  ham 
only  two  days  previous  to  the  first  appearance  of  illness,  it  was  self- 
evident  that  the  plaintiffs  did  not  have  any  case,  especially  as  no 
microscopic  examination  of  the  ham  had  taken  place.  Further,  it 
does  not  seem  as  if  retailers  of  pork  can  be  held  responsible  for  its 
containing  trichinte  in  a  country  where  neither  the  law  nor  the  com- 
munity recognize  any  such  disease  of  the  hog.  Even  our  boards 
of  health  simply  recognize  the  existence  of  trichinie  in  pork  as  a 
scientific  fact.  All  the  hogs,  specimens  from  which  I  examined, 
were  cut  up  and  sold,  even  though  the  Massachusetts  Board  of 
Health  knew  that  I  was  continually  finding  them  trichinous.  Until 
the  public  becomes  alive  to  its  own  interests,  we  may  be  sure  that 
no  steps  toward  prevention  will  be  taken  by  the  State. 

A  German  judge  has  ruled  differently.  A  })rovision-dealer  at 
Berlin  was  declared  "guilty"  for  selling  trichinous  pork,  which  had 
not  been  subjected  to  microscopic  examination,  but  which  had 
caused  disease  among  a  number  of  persons,  some  of  whom  died. 
The  judge  ruled  that  such  a  decision  was  justifiable,  even  though 
the  microscopic  examination  of  pork  was  not  then  made  imperative 
by  law.  The  objection  that  the  seller  had  no  knowledge  of  its  in- 
jurious character  was  ruled  out. 

Dr.  Sutton,*  of  Aurora,  Indiana,  reports  nine  cases  of  trichiniasis 
with  three  deaths  from  the  consumption  of  uncooked  sausage.  The 
meat  of  the  same  was  found  to  be  trichinous.     A  cubic  inch  of  the 

♦"Lancet,"  vol.  ii,  1875. 


38 


THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  AXIilALS. 


flesh,  taken  from  the  bone  of  one  of  the  persons  that  died,  was  as- 
sumed to  contain  one  hundred  thousand  trichinae. 

Dr.  Sutton  says  that  "  microscopic  examination  of  thousands  of 
swine  slaughtered  in  Indiana  reveals  three  to  sixteen  per  cent  of 
them  as  triehinous."  This  is  an  unfounded  statement,  there  being 
no  authentic  statistics  of  the  examination  of  thousands  of  swine  in 
Indiana  even  now,  nor  at  the  time  the  above  was  written. 

The  "  Rochester  Democrat,"  May  1,  1879,  reports  several  cases 
of  trichiniasis  in  that  vicinity. 

Cases  have  also  been  reported  in  the  "  Annals  of  the  Michigan 
Board  of  Health,"  at  Otsego,  Detroit,  Port  Huron,  and  other  places, 
several  of  which  terminated  fatally. 

In  Saxony,*  from  1860  to  1875,  39  different  eruptions  of  the 
disease  had  taken  place.  The  whole  number  of  cases  reported  was 
1,267,  with  19  deaths ;  of  the  19  that  died,  3  out  of  8  acquired  the 
disease  from  eating  raw  meat ;  2  out  of  630  diseased  from  cold  sau- 
sage ;  8  of  340  from  fried  sausage,  and  2  of  48  from  eating  raw  ham. 

Of  the  6,959,964  swine  which  were  slaughtered  in  Saxony  in 
these  sixteen  years,  only  39^  1  to  180,000,  gave  occasion  to  trichiniasis 
in  human  beings. 

TABLE    GIVING   THE    OBSERVED    CASES   OP  TEICHINIASIS    IIST  BAVARIA. 


No. 

Place. 

Tear. 

■  Number 
of  cases. 

Author. 

Where  described. 

Nature  of  triehin- 
ous meat. 

1 

Wurzburg. 

1853 

2t 

Virchow. 

"Virchow's  Archiv,", 
vol.  Ixxxi,  1853. 

2 

U 

1861 

It 

Kolliker. 

"Wurz.  med.  Zeit.,", 
vol.  ii,  12,  1861. 

Fresh   meat 

^        and    raw 

ham. 

3 

Erlangen. 

1870 

n 

Maurer. 

"  Deutseh.    Arch.    f. 

klin.    Med.,"    vol. 

viii,  368,  1871. 

4 

(1 

(?) 

u 

Zenker. 

Ibid.,  p.  388. 

6 

Zweibriicken. 

i8vo-"n 

If 

Friedreich. 

Ibid.,  vol.  ix,  p.  459, 
1872. 

6 

Speyer. 

1873 

5 

David. 

Communicated  to  Dr. 
Goring. 

Swine  from  Ba- 
den. 

7 

Hof. 

1878 

6 

Roth. 

"Ref.  Aerztekammer 
V.  Oberfronken." 

Some-  made 
pork. 

8 

Bamburg. 

Feb., 

1878 

30,  1  died. 

u 

«t                 (( 

9 

Niimberg. 

Mav, 

1 

10 

1878 
May, 
June. 

10! 
J 

Merkel. 

(I                 « 

Salted  pork. 

11 

Treucbtlingen. 

11 

4 

(1 

<i                 (1 

Sausage-meat. 

12 

Marktlenten. 

July. 

19 

Roth. 

<t                 II 

Partly-fried  sau- 
sage. 

13 

Burgsinn. 

Feb., 
1879 

7,  3  died. 

11 

"  Mittheile  polit.  Zeit- 
ung." 

*  Reinard,  "  Archiv  d.  Heilkunde,"  p.  241, 1877.         f  Accidentally  found  at  the  autopsy. 
X  "  Deutsche  Zeitschrift  f iir  Thiermedicin,"  Bollinger,  Bd.  5,  Hefte  3  u.  4,  p.  204. 


TRICniXUSIS  OF  MAN  AND  ANIMALS.  39 

Glazier,  in  his  report,  has  collected  a  list  of  3,044  eases  of  disease 
among  human  heings,  and  ^31  deaths,  in  Europe.  For  this  country, 
77  cases  and  24  deaths. 

He  has  also  endeavored  to  get  at  the  prevailing  opinion  of  doc- 
tors as  to  its  extension  among  tlie  people  in  this  country,  as  revealed 
in  autopsies,  but,  while  many  report  having  seen  eases,  the  reports 
are  in  general  of  so  vague  a  nature  as  to  be  next  to  valueless. 

An  Epir)E!inc  of  Triciiiniasis  ox  the  Jordan.* 
By  Dr.  John  Wobtahet. 

The  outbreak  of  tJie  disease  was  traced  to  a  M'ild  hog  which  had 
been  shot  in  the  swamps  adjoining  the  village  of  El  Khiam,  on  the 
25th  of  iS^ovember,  1880.  It  was  a  very  large  boar,  and  I  was  told 
that  its  flesh  appeared  fresh,  fat,  and  perfectly  healthy.  A  very 
large  number  of  the  people  of  the  village  ate  of  the  flesh  of  this 
hog,  partly  in  a  raw  and  partly  in  a  semi-cooked  condition.  Not  a 
single  person  that  ate  of  the  flesh  escaped  infection. 

The  head  of  the  boar  was  sent  as  a  present  to  a  family  in  a 
neighboring  village.  It  was  cooked  three  times  before  any  of  it 
was  eaten.  Although  quite  a  number  of  people  partook  of  it,  none 
of  them  became  sick. 

All  of  those  that  partook  of  other  portions  of  the  hog  remained 
in  a  healthy  condition  until  the  eruption  of  the  disease  made  itself 
evident,  which  took  place  in  the  majority  in  the  second,  and  by 
some  in  the  third  week.  I  heard  of  only  one  man  who  was  taken 
with  eraesis  and  diarrhoea  soon  after  eating.  In  this  case  the  phe- 
nomena of  the  disease  were  very  mild.  Another  ate  the  meat  well 
cooked,  and  remained  free  from  any  indications  of  invasion  to  the 
end  of  the  fifth  week  subsequent  to  the  same,  and  then  was  not 
confined  to  his  bed. 

The  principal  phenomena  during  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth 
weeks  were  oedema  of  the  face  and  extremities,  severe  nuiscular 
pains,  more  or  less  fever,  and  itching  over  the  whole  body.  The 
oedema  sometimes  extended  over  the  whole  body.  The  pain  com- 
plicated the  active  muscles,  inclusive  of  those  of  the  lower  jaw, 
the  pharynx,  and  larynx.  It  was  most  severe  at  points  where 
the  tendons  were  inserted  upon  the  extremities.  Every  move- 
ment was  painful.  The  fever  seemed  to  assume  a  severe  type 
only  in  the  fatal  cases.  Children  suffered  less  than  those  of  mature 
years. 

The  period  of  convalescence,  extending  from  the  fifth  week  on, 

*  "  Virchow's  Archiv,"  vol.  Ixxxiii,  p.  553. 


40  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

was  very  slow,  and  accompanied  by  mucli  muscular  pain,  oedema, 
and  weakness.     In  some  cases  distinct  relapses  were  apparent. 
The  number  of  persons  diseased  was : 

Males 124 

Females 103 

Children 35 

Total 262 

Of  these  died : 

Males 3 

Women 3 

Total 6 

Of  those  that  died,  the  cause  seemed  to  be  the  exhaustive  nature 
of  the  fever,  and  the  constitutional  disturbances  in  the  fourth  and 
fifth  weeks  of  the  invasion.  The  last  fatal  case  was  that  of  an  eld- 
erly woman,  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  week  of  the  invasion. 
Some  pieces  of  the  musculus  biceps  brachii  from  this  woman  were 
subjected  to  microscopic  examination  and  numerous  trichinae  found 
in  the  same. 

This  is  the  first  case  of  the  kind  reported  in  medical  literature 
from  Oriental  countries,  and  is  also  of  value  as  showing  that  the 
wild  hogs  of  those  regions  also  become  trichinous  as  well  as  those 
of  Europe. 

With  reference  to  the  observations  of  trichiniasis  in  the  dead 
body: 

Dr.  Bowditch,  of  Boston,  reported  four  cases  during  the  years 
1842-'44. 

Turner  says  of  Scotland,  that  in  five  years  1  to  2  per  cent  of  the 
human  cadavers  wei'e  found  trichinous. 

Fiedler  found  2  to  2-5  per  cent  at  Dresden. 

Wagner,  1  to  30  or  40  at  Leipsic. 

Reports  of  like  nature  come  from  other  countries. 

Pkevention  of  the  Disease  in  Man. 

Aside  from  the  regulations  already  given  for  the  prevention  of 
the  disease  among  hogs,  which,  if  possible  to  be  carried  out,  would 
prevent  it  in  man,  there  are  several  which  must  come  into  action  as 
public  health  preventive  measures. 

There  is  but  one  golden  rule  to  prevention  :  cook  the  porh  thor- 
oughly ! 

Leuckart  and  other  experimenters  have  shown  that  a  tempera- 


HOG-CnOLERA.  ^i 

ture  of  140°  Falir.,  which  must  extend  through  a  piece  of  pork,  is 
necessary  to  the  jiositive  dcatli  of  the  parasites. 

The  direct  ai)plieation  of  dry  heat,  liy  means  of  a  hot  tahle,  to 
specimens  under  the  microscope,  demonstrates  that  a  temperature 
of  50"  C.—l'2'2°  Fahr.— is  necessary  to  kill  trichiniv. 

The  ordinary  processes  of  cooking,  salting,  and  smoking  are  not 
always  a  sure  means  of  killing  these  parasites. 

All  hogs  should  be  subjected  to  microscopic  examination  by  ex- 
perts, and  no  hog  allowed  to  be  cut  up  for  sale  as  food  until  such 
an  examination  had  been  made.  Those  found  invaded  should  be 
branded  triehinous,  and  their  sale  as  food  forbidden  by  law  under 
penalty  of  a  heavy  line. 


HOG-CHOLERA. 

PNEUMO-EXTEKmS    SciS    CONTAGIOSA. 

This  peculiar  infectio-contagious  disease  of  the  porcine  family 
has  been  known  to  agriculturists  and  veterinarians  for  centuries. 
For  years  it  has  been  looked  upon  as  a  form  of  anthrax,  typhus, 
erysipelas,  etc. ;  but  it  has  remained  for  our  country  to  institute  the 
first  extensive  researches  as  to  its  nature,  though  Klein,  in  England, 
anticipated  them  by  doing  some  good  work  in  this  direction.  On 
the  Continent  of  Europe  the  disease  has  not  as  yet  been  scientifi- 
cally studied. 

I  have  nothing  but  praise  for  the  admirable  reports  of  Messrs. 
Detmers  and  Law  upon  the  porcine  pest,  issued  by  the  Agricultural 
Department  at  "Washington  in  1S7S,  and  most  earnestly  recommend 
it  to  public  consideration. 

In  1S77  our  national  commissioner  reported  a  loss  to  the  coun- 
try of  $16,653,428  from  contagious  animal  disease. 

Etiology. 

As  with  all  forms  of  infectio-contagious  diseases,  we  find  also  in 
hog-cholera,  that  it  was  a  long  time  before  we  gained  any  accurate 
knowledge  with  reference  to  the  nature  of  the  elements  causing  it. 
Some  have  asserted  that  pigs  will  not  contract  the  disease  when  fed 
on  succulent  vegetable  food  ;  but  Law  has  proved  the  fallacy  of 
this  opinion  by  direct  experiment,  Xaturally,  unfavorable  nutri- 
tive and  hygienic  conditions  will  favor  the  development  of  this  as 
well  as  other  diseases,  but  they  are  not  the  direct  cause. 


42  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  AXIMALS. 

Roell  says  tlie  disease  is  attributed  to  hot  and  saltrj  -weatlier, 
uncleanly  pens,  and  offering  to  the  swine  of  spoiled,  moldy  food 
and  deeomj)Osing  material  in  general. 

Harms  seems  to  be  the  first  to  have  discovered  germs  in  the 
blood,  and  to  have  attributed  to  them  an  etiological  importance,  as 
he  found  the  blood  and  other  parts  of  diseased  swine,  as  well  as  the 
food,  replete  with  these  organisms. 

Bollinger  also  describes  micrococci  and  short  cylinder  bacteria 
in  the  blood,  but  does  not  consider  the  etiological  connection  with 
the  disease  as  established. 

Eoell  says  further,  "  The  disease  has  not  yet  been  produced  by 
inoculation." 

Spinola  wrote  a  monograph  on  the  "Diseases  of  Swine,"  Berlin, 
1842,  and  considers  the  disease  to  be  of  a  gastro-bilious  character ; 
and  says  further,  it  is  observed  to  occur  in  those  swine  which  have 
much  rest,  a  surplus  of  strong  feed,  especially  that  which  is  of  a 
spirituous  nature — brewers'  grains,  etc. — which  incline  to  a  surplus 
23roduction  of  gall  and  its  accumulation  in  the  system.  He  also 
considers  the  above  climatic  conditions  to  exert  an  influence  in  the 
generation  of  the  disease. 

It  remained,  however,  for  American  veterinarians,  not  indige- 
nous to  the  country,  to  establish  beyond  doubt  the  true  nature  of 
this  disease. 

The  results  of  the  studies  of  Messrs.  Law  and  Detmers  show  the 
disease  to  be  of  an  infectious  and  contagious  nature,  and  capable  of 
transmission  to  other  animals  as  well  as  swine  by  inoculation. 

They  discovered  in  the  blood  peculiar  elements  having  a  globu- 
lar or  micrococcus  form,  as  well  as  staff-like  bodies — the  mature 
form — to  which  Detmers  gave  the  name  of 

Bacillus  Sris. 

These  objects  are  found  invariably  in  the  blood,  urine,  mucus, 
exudations,  etc.,  in  all  pathologically  changed  tissues  and  in  the 
excrements  of  the  diseased  animals,  and  constitute,  beyond  all  ques- 
tion, the  etiological  momenta  of  the  disease.  These  bacilli  undergo 
several  changes,  and  require  a  certain  length  of  time  to  fulfill  their 
development ;  consequently,  if  introduced  into  an  animal  organism, 
some  time  must  pass  (the  incubational  or  colonization  period)  before 
the  morbid  phenomena  become  apparent.  Three  stages  of  develop- 
ment may  be  observed — viz.,  the  germ,  or  micrococcus  stage ;  the 
bacillus,  or  rod-bacterial  stage ;  and  the  proliferating  or  germ-pro- 
ducing stage. 


HOG-CnOLERA.  43 

Tlie  micrococci  are  found  in  immense  numbers  in  tlie  fluids  of 
tlie  oriranisni,  especially  in  the  blood  and  exudations.  If  the  tem- 
perature is  not  too  low,  and  a  sufficiency  of  oxygen  is  present,  they 
soon  develop,  or  grow  longitudinally,  by  a  sort  of  budding  process 
— a  germ,  or  micrococcus,  under  C(»nstant  microscopic  observation, 
budded  and  grew  to  double  its  length  in  exactly  two  hours  in  a 
temperature  of  70°  Fahr,,  and  gradually  developed  to  a  true  rod. 
Some  of  the  latter  under  favorable  circumstances  commence  to  grow 
again  in  length,  until  they  a])pear  live  to  six  inches  long,  with  a 
power  of  850  diameters.  At  the  same  time  scission  takes  place, 
and  they  break  into  two  or  more  segments.  These  long  bacteria 
appear  to  be  replete  with  germs;  the  external  envelope  disappears, 
or  is  dissolved,  and  the  germs  become  free. 

Some  of  the  bacilli  move  very  rapidly,  while  others  appear  mo- 
tionless. The  cause  of  motion  seems  to  be  in  some  way  dependent 
upon  the  temperature,  for  they  appear  motionless  if  the  latter  be 
low,  but  sof»n  move  if  the  temperature  be  increased  and  caused  to 
exert  a  direct  influence  upon  them. 

Another  change  to  be  observed  is  the  collection  of  the  germs, 
or  bacteria,  in  the  so-called  zooglea  clusters,  which  are  often  to  be 
met  with  in  tlie  bloo<l  and  other  fluids,  and  invariably  in  the  exu- 
dations in  the  lunjjs.  In  the  ulcerous  tumors  of  the  intestinal 
mucosa  these  clusters  are  comparatively  seldom,  but  the  bacilli  are 
very  numerously  represented.  These  tumefactions  in  tlie  intestinal 
tracts  appear  to  afford  the  most  favorable  conditions  for  the  growth 
and  development  of  these  bacteria. 

"Whether  these  zooglea  clustei's  are  instrumental  in  the  ])ro- 
dnction  of  capillary  embolism  is  still  an  open  question,  though  it 
appears  highly  probalde.  The  vitality  of  the  germs,  and  especially 
of  the  bacilli,  does  not  appear  to  be  very  great  (Detmei's)  except 
where  they  are  contained  in  a  medium  not  very  prone  to  decomposi- 
tion, such  as  water  which  contains  a  slight  amount  of  organic  sub- 
stances. In  the  water  of  streams,  brooks,  etc.,  the  germs  are  not 
very  rapidly  destroyed.  In  fluids  and  substances  subject  to  putre- 
faction the  bacteria  lose  their  vitality  very  soon,  and  apparently  dis- 
appear. They  are  also  destroyed  when  acte<l  upon  by  alcoliol,  car- 
bolic acid,  thymol,  iodine,  etc.  With  reference  to  the  vitality  of  the 
infectious  elements.  Law  savs  of  the 

Yinih'nre  of  Dried  Yirun. — This  was  indicated  three  years  ago 
by  Professor  Axe,  of  London,  who  successfully  inoculated  pigs 
with  virus  that  had  been  dried  on  ivory  ])oints  for  seventy-six  days. 
Law  inoculated  three   pigs  with  virulent  products  that  had  been 


44  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

dried  on  quills  for  one  day ;  one  with  the  same  kind  of  virus  that 
had  been  dried  four  davs,  another  with  virus  that  had  beon  dried 
five  days,  and  another  with  virus  that  had  been  dried  for  six  days. 
The  quills  had  been  sent  from  Xew  Jei*sey  and  ]^orth  Carolina, 
without  any  special  protection.  Of  the  six  inoculations  four  gave 
positive  results,  while  two,  in  which  the  quills  were  subjected  to  the 
action  of  disinfectants,  gave  negative. 

Vii'idence  of  Dried  Intestine. — Pieces  of  dried  intestine,  which 
had  been  dried  for  three  and  four  days  each,  were  used  for  inocula- 
tion, and  gave  positive  results. 

Virulence  of  Moist  Morbid  Products  if  secluded  from  the  Air. 
— In  these  experiments  a  pig  was  inoculated  with  a  piece  of  in- 
testine sent  from  Illinois  in  a  tightly  corked  bottle.  The  specimen 
had  been  three  days  from  the  pig,  and  had  a  slightly  putrid  odor. 
The  disease  developed  on  the  sixth  day. 

A  second  pig  was  inoculated  with  blood  from  a  diseased  pig 
that  had  been  kept  for  eleven  days  at  100°  Fahr.  in  an  isolation  ap- 
paratus, the  outlets  of  which  were  plugged  with  cotton-wool. .  lU- 
ness  followed  in  twenty-four  hours. 

•  These  experiments  go  to  prove  that  the  exclusion  of  air,  or  re- 
tarding of  putrefaction,  probably  favors  the  longer  preservation  of 
the  inficiens. 

Probable  Non- Virulence  of  Morhid  Products  that  have  under- 
gone Putrefaction. — This  seems  to  be  proved  by  direct  experiment. 

Virulence  of  the  Blood. — Law  produced  positive  results  by  ex- 
j^eriments  upon  two  pigs,  which  is  opposed  to  the  single  experiment 
of  Klein ;  but  Law  does  not  know  but  that  at  certain  stages  of  the 
disease  the  blood  may  be  non-virulent. 

Infection  by  means  of  the  air  does  not  seem  to  be  clearly  proved. 

Transmissions  of  the  disease  to  other  animcds  than  the  hog  for 
inoculation  seem  aU  to  be  followed  by  positive  results  in  sheep, 
rabbits,  and  dogs ;  and  Klein  succeeded  in  producing  it  in  rabbits. 
Guinea-pigs,  and  mice. 

Seasons  axd  TEitPERATUEES. 

Experience  has  proved  the  extension  and  devastations  of  this 
disease  to  be  the  most  extreme  in  the  late  summer  and  early  fall 
months;  but  the  cold  weather  of  winter  does  not  seem  to  be  able 
to  put  that  check  to  its  ravages  which  occurs  under  the  same  condi- 
tions with  other  diseases  of  a  somewhat  similar  nature. 

Detmers  says :  "  "While,  therefore,  the  very  severe  weather  of 
the  past  winter  caused  a  great  reduction  in  the  number  of  animals 


HOG-CHOLERA.  45 

affected,  tlie  disease  was  not  eradicated,  nor  did  its  fatality  seem  to 
be  lessened.  The  extension  of  the  disease  from  one  lierdto  another 
was  greatly  diminished  ;  but  in  infected  herds  where  the  malady 
was  already  prevailing  when  cold  weather  set  in,  there  appeared 
but  little  ditference  in  the  rapidity  of  the  transmission  of  the  dis- 
ease from  one  animal  to  another  in  the  same  lot.'' 

Dr.  Law  confirms  this  statement,  for  his  experiments  proved 
that  "  the  severe  frosts  of  winter  do  not  destroy  the  germs  of  the 
malady,  but  simply  retard  their  conveyance  from  one  herd  to  an- 
other.'' 

In  another  ]ilace  Dr.  Law  says  :  "  I  have  demonstrated  that  the 
freezing  of  the  virulent  matter  does  not  destroy  its  activity,  and 
that  the  virus  loses  nothing  in  potency  by  preservation  for  one  or 
two  months  closely  packed  in  dry  l)ran.  The  same  may  1)c  inferred 
of  all  other  situations  when  it  is  closely  packed,  and  Avliere  the  air 
has  imperfect  access.  These  last  two  points  are  of  immense  im- 
portance as  bearing  npon  the  question  of  the  i>reservation  of  the 
poison  in  infected  pens  and  yards,  alike  in  winter  and  in  summer, 
to  say,  nothing  of  its  possible  conveyance  by  means  of  fodder  or 
other  vehicles." 

Incubation. 

According  to  the  average  drawn  from  a  large  number  of  obser- 
vations, the  period  of  incubation  varies  from  five  to  fifteen  days. 

Intka-vttal  Phenomena. 

One  of  the  very  earliest  symptoms  is  a  marked  rise  in  the  tem- 
jx'rature  of  the  hog  ;  yet  the  fact  is  not  without  some  questionable 
diagnostic  value  :  first,  on  account  of  the  variations  which  seem  to 
exist  in  the  normal  temperature  of  different  hogs ;  and,  second,  the 
difficulty  which  the  struggle  of  the  pig  throws  in  the  way  of  the 
proper  application  of  the  thermometer,  which  may  in  some  cases 
cause  a  more  or  less  marked  rise  in  the  temperature.  Detmers  does 
not  consider  the  thennometer  of  any  great  value  in  the  diagnosis 
or  prognosis  of  this  disease.  The  disease  frequently  announces  it- 
self by  a  cold  shivering  on  the  ])art  of  the  atfiicted  swine,  lasting 
from  a  few  moments  to  several  hours,  frequent  sneezing,  and  more 
or  less  coughing. 

These  anticipatory  symptoms  are  soon  followed  liy  a  more  or  less 
loss  of  appetite,  a  rough  and  somewhat  staring  condition  of  the 
bristles,  a  drooping  of  the  ears,  loss  of  vivacity,  and  in  some  cases 
by  vomitiTig  ;  a  desire  to  bury  themselves  in  the  bedding  and  to  lie 
down  in  dark  and  quiet  corners;  a  dull  and  injected  condition  of 


46  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

the  eyes  ;  swelling  of  the  head,  eruptions  upon  the  ears  and  other 
parts  of  the  body  ;  occasionally  bleeding  from  the  nose,  and  partial 
or  total  blindness ;  dizziness,  diarrhoea,  and  stertorous  breathing. 
The  flanks  fall  in,  and  the  animals  rapidly  become  emaciated,  and 
betray  a  vitiated  appetite  for  dung,  dirt,  and  saline  substances ;  in- 
creased thirst,  accumulation  of  secretions  in  the  canthi  of  the  eyes, 
and  more  or  less  copious  nasal  discharges.  The  peculiar  offensive 
and  fetid  smell  of  the  exhalations  and  excrements  may  be  looked 
upon  as  characteristics  of  this  disease.  This  odor  is  so  penetrating  as 
to  announce  the  presence  of  the  disease,  especially  if  the  herd  of 
swine  be  a  large  one,  at  a  distance  of  half  a  mile,  or  even  more,  if 
the  direction  of  the  wind  be  favorable.  If  the  animals  are  inclined 
to  be  costive,  the  faeces  are  generally  grayish  or  brownish-black  in 
color,  and  hard ;  if  diarrhoea  is  present,  they  are  semi-fluid,  of  a 
grayish-green  color,  and  in  some  cases  contain  an  admixture  of 
blood.  In  a  large  number  of  cases  the  more  tender  portions  of  the 
skin  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body,  between  the  posterior  ex- 
tremities, behind  the  ears,  or  even  on  the  nose  and  neck,  exhibit 
numerous  larger  or  smaller  red  spots,  or  sometimes  a  uniform  red- 
ness. Toward  the  fatal  termination,  this  redness  frequently  changes 
to  a  purple  color.  The  physical  examination  of  the  thorax  reveals,  if 
pleuritis  be  present,  the  characteristic  crepitation.  As  the  patholog- 
ical processes  progress,  the  movements  of  the  afflicted  animal  become 
weaker  and  slower,  the  gait  staggering  and  uncertain ;  sometimes 
paretic  phenomena  appear,  especially  in  the  posterior  portions  of  the 
body.  If  still  standing,  the  head  becomes  much  depressed,  but,  as  a 
rule,  the  diseased  animals  are  found  lying  down  in  a  dark  and  se- 
cluded corner,  with  the  nose  buried  in  the  bedding.  An  extremely 
fetid  diarrhoea  frequently  marks  the  approach  of  a  slow,  fatal  termi- 
nation of  the  disease ;  the  voice  becomes  very  peculiar,  faint,  and 
hoarse,  the  sick  animal  manifests  the  greatest  indifference  to  its 
surroundings ;  emaciation  and  general  debihty  increase  very  fast ; 
the  skin  is  hard,  dry,  and  dirty,  the  more  so  according  to  the  dura- 
tion of  the  disease  ;  death  ensues  under  convulsions,  or  very  quickly ; 
in  some  cases  a  cold,  clammy  perspiration  breaks  out  over  the  body. 
"Wherever  pigs  or  hogs  have  been  ringed,  the  wounds  thus  made 
betray  a  great  inclination  to  ulceration.  In  those  few  cases  which 
do  not  terminate  fatally,  the  symptoms  gradually  disappear ;  the 
cough  becomes  more  frequent  but  less  laborious,  the  discharge  from 
the  nose  becomes  for  a  day  or  two  more  copious,  but  soon  diminishes, 
and  the  offensive  odor  of  the  excrements  disappears  ;  existing  sores 
or  ulcers  have  a  tendency  to  heal ;  the  animal  becomes  more  live- 


HOG-CnOLERA.  47 

ly,  and  gains  slowly  in  flesh  and  strength ;  a  short,  hacking  cough 
frequently  continues  for  a  long  time. 

Patholocjical  Phenomena. 

The  morbid  processes,  though  essentially  the  same,  can  have  their 
seat  in  many  ditferent  organs  or  parts  of  the  body.  The  necro- 
scopical  aspects  of  the  disease  are  consequently  not  always  the 
same. 

AVe  almost  always  tind  a  more  or  less  extensive  infiltration  of 
portions  of  the  lungs,  as  well  as  serous  hiumorrhagic  conditions  in 
the  i)ulmonary  tissues.  In  some  cases  the  infiltrated  conditions  of 
the  lungs  are  so  extensive  that  they  sink  when  thrown  into  water. 
The  degree  of  consolidation  is  largely  dependent  upon  the  duration 
of  the  disease.  In  some  lungs  these  centei-s  of  consolidation  were 
circumscribed  and  rare,  while  in  others  they  were  diffuse,  and  com- 
plicated a  large  portion  of  the  lung.  "Where  the  consolidation  was 
limited,  it  was  principally  seated  in  the  anterior  lobes.  In  animals 
where  the  disease  had  progressed  slowly,  the  different  stages,  or  bet- 
ter conditions  of  consolidation  were  observable,  conforming  to  the 
red,  brown,  or  gray  hepatization  of  pathologists — conditions  of  color 
dej>endent  on  the  amount  of  blood  present  in  the  intiltnited  pul- 
monary tissues.  The  greater  the  endothelial  proliferation,  and  accu- 
mulation of  inflammatory  products,  the  greater  the  pressure  exerted 
upon  the  capillary  loops  dipping  into  the  alveoli ;  hence  the  variation 
in  Color,  red,  brown,  or  gray. 

The  lymphatic  and  mesenteric  glands  were  invariably  found  to 
be  enlarged.  In  some  cases  they  presented  a  brownish  or  blackish 
color,  and  contained  not  only  disintegrated  elements  but  extravasa- 
tions which  lay  between  and  separated  the  normal  elements  of  the 
glands. 

The  trachea  and  bronchi  were  filled  with  more  or  less  frothy 
mncus,  which  contained  desquamated  epitlielium  and  bacteria.  The 
mucous  membrane  was  more  or  less  tumefied  and  congested. 

Morbid  changes  were  almost  invariably  present  in  the  pleurte, 
mediastinum,  and  pericardium,  as  well  as  slight  effusions  in  the 
ca^^ties  of  the  chest  and  abdomen.  Pleural  a<lhesions  were  fre- 
quently met  with,  as  well  as  deposits  u[)on  the  free  surface  of  the 
membranes. 

The  h'lirt  (myocardium)  was  found  to  l>e  complicate*!  in  the 
majority  of  cases.  In  some  animals  it  was  flabby  and  dilated,  and 
generally  congested.  In  the  majority  of  cases  pathological  changes, 
which  may  be  s;iid  to  be  pathognomonic,  were  found  in  the  ciccum 


48  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

and  colon.  These  consisted  of  peculiar  growths  or  ulcerous  tumors 
in  the  mucosa.  (Whether  these  were  limited  to  the  Peyer's  patches 
or  not  the  report  does  not  say.)  They  varied  in  size  and  shape,  and 
were  more  or  less  prominent  above  the  general  surface  of  the  mu- 
cosa. The  base  of  the  older  ones  was  frequently  more  or  less  pig- 
mented. Their  size  varied  from  that  of  a  pin's  head  to  a  quarter  of 
a  dollar.  The  smaller  ones  were  generally  of  a  yellowish  color,  and 
projected  but  slightly ;  the  larger  ones  were  of  a  grayish-brown 
color,  or  even  blackish,  and  had  usually  a  slight  concavity  in  the 
center.  The  greater  part  of  these  growths  consisted  of  connective 
tissue.  In  some  cases  these  growi;hs,  especially  the  smaller  ones, 
or  those  of  recent  origin,  were  situated  upon  the  surface  of  the  mu- 
cosa, and  were  easily  scraped  off,  leaving  behind  an  uneven,  excori- 
ated surface,  having  the  appearance  of  granulation  tissue.  The 
older  and  larger  tumors  penetrated  more  deeply  into  the  substance 
of  the  mucosa — in  some  cases  so  deeply  that  their  removal  caused 
perforation  of  the  walls  of  the  intestine.  Similar  productions  were 
also  found  in.  other  parts  of  the  intestine. 

The  contents  of  the  gall-bladder  were  found,  in  many  cases,  to 
consist  of  a  semi-solid,  granular,  dirty-brownish  substance.  In  most 
of  them  the  ductus  choledochus  appeared  to  be  thickened,  so  that 
the  semi-solid  condition  of  the  bile  might  be  attributed  to  absorption 
of  its  fluid  elements,  due  to  retention. 

Morbid  changes  in  the  skin  were  frequently  met  with,  consisting 
of  ulcers,  purple  spots  or  patches,  or  diffuse  redness. 

The  blood  presented  both  qualitative  and  quantitative  changes. 
It  was  dirt-colored  in  all  cases  wdiere  death  had  been  caused  by  cxt 
tensive  pulmonary  complications,  but  was  thin  and  light-colored 
where  pathological  changes  predominated  in  other  parts  of  the  or- 
ganism. It  invariably  coagulated  on  exposure  to  the  atmosj)here. 
The  kidneys  exhibited  no  very  marked  change. 

Microscopic  Observations.     (Law.) 

Skin. — Microscopic  sections  through  the  affected  portions  of  the 
skin  showed  the  various  grades  of  congestion,  with  blocking  of  the 
capillaries,  and  an  excess  of  lymphoid  and  large  granular  cells  and 
pigment  granules  with  extravasations  and  necrotic  centers.  With 
the  earlier  congestion  there  is  more  or  less  anasarca  and  consequent 
separation  of  the  elements  of  the  cutis,  while  in  the  later  or  more 
severe  conditions  a  fibrinous  exudation  takes  place,  and  this  may 
even  exude  upon  the  free  surface  and  form  dark  scabs.  In  no  in- 
stance was  formation  of  pus  in  the  skin  to  be  seen.     One  feature. 


nOG-CHOLERA.  49 

which  does  not  seem  to  liave  been  hitherto  observed,  was  tlie  impH- 
eation  of  the  bristk^-folHcles. 

Intestines. — St^ctions  through  those  portions  of  the  intestines 
which  are  merely  congested  and  reddened,  but  without  ulceration, 
show  stagnation  and  blocking  of  the  capillaries  of  the  mucosa  and 
sub-mucosa,  with  thickening  and  softening  of  the  tissues,  especially 
of  the  epithelium.  This  last  contains  a  great  excess  of  granules, 
and  aggregations  of  the  same  into  cell-forms,  while  the  ei)ithelial 
cells  are  reduced  in  size  and  contain  enlarged  nuL-lei.  As  has  been 
pointed  out  by  Klein,  the  degeneration  is  often  the  greatest  around 
the  openings  of  the  crypts  of  Liel)erkuhn,  and  in  their  interior, 
while  their  cavities  are  frequently  filled  with  extravasated  blood. 
Aside  from  the  above  one  frequently  finds  lymphoid  and  migrated 
blood-cells,  hajmatine  crystals,  and  micrococci. 

The  ulcere,  with  a  central  slough,  present  at  their  base  the  same 
characteristics  as  the  congested  mucous  membrane.  The  slouch  is 
mainly  composed  of  small  nucleated  cells  and  granules,  and  mi- 
crococci. 

Lymphatic  Glands. — The  obstruction  of  the  capillaries  and  ex- 
tnivasation  of  blood  arc  most  common  in  the  cortical  portion  of  the 
gland  ;  when  the  medullary  portion  is  complicated,  the  extravasated 
blood  is  oftenest  met  with  in  the  lymph-channels  and  inter-stromatous 
spaces,  while  the  parenchyma  seems  to  escape.  The  cellular  changes 
are  most  marked  in  the  protracted  cases  of  the  disease. 

Or(jans  of  Respiration. — The  characteristic  lesion  of  the  lungs 
is  lobular  pneumonia ;  the  exudation  being  most  abundant  in  the 
interlobular  connective  tissues,  and  is  often  of  a  dark  color  on  ac- 
count of  the  presence  of  red  blood-cells.  A  microscopic  section 
transverse  to  the  bronchioli  and  alveoli  reveals  the  presence  of  an 
exudation  containing  a  large  number  of  round  lymphoid  cells,  gran- 
ules, and  in  the  alveoli  similar  accunndations. 

Kidneys. — Clouded  swelhng  of  the  cortical,  with  consequent 
hypenrmia  of  the  medullary,  substance. 

Blood. — In  most  cases  no  changes  were  to  be  observed  except 
the  presence  of  numerous  bacteria.  No  such  organisms  were  to  be 
found  in  the  blood  of  a  healthy  pig. 

DiAc^N'osis. — From  the  foregoing  detailed  description  of  the 
phenomena  of  tins  disease,  it  is  evident  that  there  is  but  little 
difficulty  in  its  correct  recognition,  especially  when  appearing  in  a 
number  of  swine  at  the  same  time. 

Proonosis. — This  is  always  unfavorable,  for  even  though  indi- 
viduals may  survive  the  attack,  still  the  ravages  of  the  disease  are 
4 


50  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

sucli  as  to  almost  destroy  their  value  as  marketable  animals  from 
an  economical  point  of  view. 

Treatment. — On  account  of  its  difficulties,  medicinal  treatment 
of  swine  is  in  general  almost  useless,  and  with  this  disease  truly  so ; 
the  antizymotics  are,  however,  indicated  in  unison  with  tonics. 

Prevention. 

As  in  all  infectious  diseases,  of  whatever  nature,  the  aim  of 
modern  medicine  is  prevention.  On  account  of  the  great  liability 
to  extension  peculiar  to  this  porcine  pest,  the  regulations  of  prevent- 
ive medicine  must  be  fully  as  much  of  a  general  as  of  a  local 
character. 

We  shall  follow  Mr.  Law  in  considering  this  question.    He  says : 

"  One  farmer  may  easily  eradicate  it  from  his  swine,  but,  so  long 
as  it  continues  to  prevail  among  those  of  his  neighbors,  his  stock  is 
daily  subjected  to  the  danger  of  renewed  infection." 

This  being  the  fact  with  reference  to  the  individual  farmer,  it  is 
equally  the  case  in  every  township,  county,  or  State.  In  our  East- 
ern States  the  pest  is  almost  invariably  due  to  the  importation  of 
diseased  stock,  and,  though  from  the  lack  of  pigs  it  never  gains 
wide  extension,  it  illustrates  the  infectious  nature  of  the  disease  in 
the  West.  To  secure  a  complete  or  even  restricted  immunity  from 
its  ravages,  active  measures  must  be  taken  over  the  entire  land,  and 
this  can  only  be  done  under  the  supervision  of  one  central,  con- 
trolling power,  with  the  necessary  number  of  local  authorities. 

The  following  measures  should  be  adopted : 

1.  The  appointment  of  local  inspectors  to  carry  out  the  measures 
necessary  to  suppress  the  disease. 

2.  The  injunction  on  all  having  the  care  of  or  ownership  of  hogs, 
and  upon  all  who  may  be  called  upon  to  advise  concerning  the  same, 
or  to  treat  them,  to  make  known  to  such  local  authorities  all  recog- 
nized or  suspected  cases  of  the  disease,  under  a  penalty  for  any  and 
every  neglect  of  such  duty. 

3.  The  obliging  of  the  local  authorities,  under  the  advice  of  a 
competent  veterinary  inspector,  to  see  to  the  absolute  destruction  of 
all  pigs  suffering  from  the  pest,  and  all  that  have  been  in  contact 
with  them,  and  their  burial  in  some  isolated  place,  and  the  thorough 
disinfection  of  the  pens,  utensils,  and  persons  around  them. 

(It  will  frequently  be  found  most  advantageous  to  the  interests 
of  all  concerned,  to  kill  and  bury  the  hogs  in  their  pens,  and  to 
burn  the  latter,  when  of  wood,  as  well  as  the  utensils,  and  to  erect 
new  pens  at  some  place  properly  distant  for  any  new  lot  of  hogs.) 


HOG-CnOLERA.  51 

4.  The  complete  isolation  of  all  domestic  animals  wliicli  have 
been  in  contact  with  the  diseased  pigs,  and  in  all  cases  of  sheep  and 
rabbits,  the  destruction  of  the  sick  when  this  shall  be  deemed  neces- 
sary. 

5.  "When  all  the  pigs  in  an  infected  herd  have  not  been  de- 
stroyed, the  remainder  should  be  placed  upon  an  official  register, 
and  subjected  to  daily  inspection  by  the  veterinaiy  inspector,  so 
that  the  sick  may  be  removed  and  killed  on  the  first  indication  of 
disease. 

G.  Sheep  and  rabbits  which  have  been  in  contact  with  diseased 
hogs  should  be  treated  likewise,  and  none  should  be  removed  from 
the  fiock  until  after  the  lapse  of  a  month  from  the  last  appearance 
of  disease  among  them. 

7.  All  animals  and  birds,  wild  or  tame,  and  all  persons  except 
those  employed  in  the  work,  must  be  carefully  excluded  from  the 
infected  premises,  and  until  the  same  have  been  pronounced  safe, 
after  careful  disinfection,  etc. 

S.  The  losses  sustained  by  owners  from  the  compulsory  slaughter 
of  their  hogs  should  be  made  good  by  a  valuation  to  be  fixed  by  a 
competant  board  of  assessors. 

9.  Such  reimbursement  should  be  forfeited  by  owners  who  fail 
to  comply  with  the  law  in  properly  notifying  the  authorities  of  the 
real  existence  or  suspicion  of  the  presence  of  the  pest  among  their 
swine. 

10.  A  register  should  be  kept,  in  prescribed  form,  of  all  hogs 
kept  on  farms  within  a  certain  radius  of  infected  herds — say  one 
mile — and  no  removal  of  such  animals  should  be  permitted  until 
the  disease  had  been  pronounced  at  an  end,  unless  by  special  license 
from  the  competent  authorities,  after  the  veterinary  inspector  had 
pronounced  the  herd  in  question  to  be  absolutely  free  from  every 
suspicion  of  the  disease. 

11.  Tlailroad  and  shipping  agents  of  adjoining  stations  to  in- 
fected districts  should  be  forbidden  to  ship  pigs,  excepting  by  license 
of  the  local  authorities,  until  the  plague  luis  been  pronounced  at  an 
end  in  such  districts. 

12.  "When  infected  pigs  have  been  conveyed  by  rail,  boat,  or 
other  means  of  transport,  measures  should  be  taken  to  insure  the 
thorough  disinfection  of  such  vehicles  of  transport,  as  well  as  the 
bams,  docks,  or  yards,  or  other  places  into  which  the  diseased  ani- 
mals may  have  been  turned. 


52  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 


DISEASES   OF  CATTLE. 

Cattle  assume  bj  far  the  first  place  among  our  domestic  ani- 
mals, from  an  economical  point  of  view.  The  prosperity  of  a  nation 
might  well  be  estimated  by  its  wealth  in  cattle.  Of  all  animals, 
they  supply  the  greatest  proportion  of  our  animal  food.  "Without 
beef  and  milk,  we  could  hardly  think  ourselves  capable  of  existing. 
Assuming  this  rank,  then,  as  a  source  of  food,  it  is  self -apparent 
that  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  in  keeping  such  animals  in  a 
hygienic — i.  e.,  healthy — condition. 

Animal  hygiene  differs  much  from  human  : 

1.  The  animals  must  be  kept  healthy. 

2.  They  must  be  kept  healthy,  so  that  they  may  yield  the  great- 
est possible  return  to  the  owner,  be  it  work,  flesh,  milk,  or  other 
products. 

To  attain  this  end  requires  the  greatest  attention  on  the  part  of 
the  owners. 

To  attain  it  economically,,  the  owner  must  pay  attention  to  the 
different  characteristics  of  each  animal,  that  no  food  goes  to  waste. 
One  animal  fattens  easier  than  another  on  the  same  amount  of  food. 
One  cow  yields  more  milk,  or  one  ox  performs  a  like  amount  of 
work  upon  food  that  its  neighbor  will  not  thrive  upon. 

But  in  many  instances,  and  it  is  with  these  we  have  especially  to 
do,  animal  hygiene  imposes  upon  the  owner  a  responsibility  that  has, 
up  to  the  present  time,  almost  escaped  appreciation. 

It  is  the  imperative  duty  of  owners^  or  breeders  of  animals,  to 
study  every  influence  that  may  possibly  have  an  injurious  effect 
upon  them,  when  destined  to  be  articles  of  human  consumption, 
either  as  flesh  or  milk. 

Thus  we  see  that  the  interests  of  public  health  demand  the 
greatest  and  most  studious  care  of  the  water,  feeding,  and  surround- 
ings of  such  animals. 

We  are  not  going  too  far  when  we  assert  that  this  branch  of 
animal  hygiene  has  been  almost  entirely  neglected,  not  only  by  the 
owner,  but  by  scientists  as  well. 

Tape-worms  are  not  by  any  means  an  uncommon  occurrence  in 
man,  yet  how  few  people  realize  that  one  variety  is  derived  from 
the  consumption  of  improperly  cooked  beef ! 

An  instance  comes  to  our  mind  of  an  M.  D.,  who  enjoyed  a  large 
practice,  that  came  to  us  with  the  segments  of  a  tape-worm,  but 
could  not  believe  it  was,  because  the  patient  never  ate  any  pork. 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE.  53 

On  being  told  that  man  also  obtains  such  a  parasite  from  eating 
beef,  he  was  eomi)letelj  surprised. 

The  name  whicli  science  has  given  to  this  parasite  is  Tamia 
medlo-canellata,  or,  better,  saginata. 

This  parasite  exceeds  in  length  that  which  we  have  j)reviously 
described  as  being  obtained  from  i)ork.  Its  sections,  or  proglottids, 
are  also  broader  and  thicker.  Tania  solium,  or  armaUi^  derived 
from  pork,  has  its  scolex,  or  head,  armed  with  huuks,  wliich  is  not 
the  case  with  the  one  we  are  at  present  considering.  This  fact  at 
firet  led  naturalists  to  think  they  had  before  them  one  and  the  same 
tape-worm,  the  dilferenccs  in  appearance  and  formation  of  the  heads 
representing  different  stages  of  development,  the  armed  parasite 
representing  a  youthful,  the  unarmed  an  aged,  period  in  its  exist- 
ence. This  has  been  clearly  demonstrated  to  be  a  mistake.  Pro- 
glottids of  tffiuia  saginata  fed  to  young  swine  failed  to  produce  cys- 
ticerei,  or  measles,  while  the  same  when  fed  to  calves  were  followed 
by  positive  results — i.  e.,  the  development  of  cysticerci  of  the  un- 
armed tape-worm  in  the  intertibrillar  tissue  (Leuckart,  Mosler,  it  al.). 

As  to  their  presence  in  cattle,  Dr.  Thudicum  *  says : 

"  The  question  why  the  cysticerci  of  ticnia  saginata  have  never 
been  observed  in  the  flesh  of  cattle,  with  the  exception  of  those 
cases  in  which  they  have  been  intentionally  reared,  is  of  great  inter- 
est and  importance,  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view.  It  is  possible 
that  these  bladder-worms  are  present  in  the  musculature  of  cattle  in 
very  small  numbers  only,  and  consequently  do  not  present  any  such 
striking  appearance  on  section  of  the  muscles  as  is  produced  by 
measles  in  the  muscles  of  swine.  For  while  a  pig  would  devour  an 
entire  tape-worm  if  it  came  in  its  way,  a  calf  would  refuse  to  eat  it, 
if  it  could  avoid  doing  so ;  hence,  only  free  eggs  or  single  proglot- 
tids, adhering  to  or  concealed  in  the  herbs  making  up  the  ordinary 
food  of  cattle,  could  be  introduced  into  their  systems.  Thus,  cattle 
driven  along  a  road  or  path  would  ])c  liable  to  snatch  a  mouthful  of 
grass,  and  with  it  a  proglottid  of  the  bookless  or  five-cu})pod  ta])e- 
worm.  The  very  circumstance  of  tJie  scarcity  of  cysticerci  in  the 
flesh  of  cattle  facilitates  their  importation  into  thi' human  intestines. 
The  single  specimens  are  not  discovered,  and  consequently  not 
avoided ;  hence,  the  taenia  derived  from  them  live  in  almost  all 
countries  of  our  globe,  and  infest  the  black  and  white  man,  the 
Mongol,  the  !Malay,  and  the  Indian.  I  have  examined  many  thou- 
sands of  specimens  of  beef  from  many  hundreds  of  bodies  of  beeves, 
and  have  never  yet  found  a  cysticercus  of  this  ta?nia  in  the  flesh  or 
*  Report  to  the  Privy  Council  of  Great  Britain.     Sec  seventh  report,  London,  1865. 


54  THE   DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

any  other  organ.  Probably  if  calves  and  heifers  were  systematically 
dissected  with  the  same  care  as  human  bodies,  these  cysticerci  would 
appear  as  frequently  as  the  trichinae  or  the  cysticercus  cellulosse  in 
man,  both  which  parasites  were  discovered  in  the  anatomical  thea- 
tre, and  without  anatomical  dissection  would  no  doubt  have  eluded 
the  vigilance  of  science  much  longer." 

As  said  previously,  taenia  saginata  is  found  in  man  in  all  parts 
of  the  world.  It  seems  far  to  exceed  taenia  solium  in  its  prevalence 
among  the  inhabitants  of  Austria  proper  and  Lower  Germany,  while 
in  North  Germany  taenia  solium  is  more  frequently  met  with.  It 
has  been  met  with  in  England,  and  a  case  of  invasion  is  also  report- 
ed in  an  Indian  in  our  own  country ;  but  well-ordered  statistics  in 
this  regard  are  so  out  of  the  general  course  of  events  in  these  two 
countries,  that  we  are  not  justified  in  assuming  that  the  populations 
of  the  same  are  so  much  favored  above  their  fellow-men  in  other 
countries. 

With  reference  to  protection  from  this  parasite — 

1.  We  must  have  a  well-organized  system  of  inspection  of  all 
animals  slaughtered,  by  competently  educated  men. 

2.  The  people  must  be  educated  in  a  knowledge  of  these  dan- 
gers, and  also  in  the  means  necessary  to  their  prevention. 

a.  Without  the  active  co-operation  of  the  jpeojple^  we  can  hope  for 
little  successful  reform  in  this  country. 

3.  The  consumption  of  undercooked  meat  must  be  looked  upon 
as  dangerous  to  health. 

Cattle  are  also  subject  to  several  diseases  which  threaten  the 
public  health,  from  the  fact  that  they  are  transmissible  to  man  by 
means  of  infectious  elements  peculiar  to  each  of  them. 

"  Foot-and-mouth  disease "  is  the  common  name  given  to  a  pe- 
culiar vesicular  eruption  which  afflicts  cattle  on  the  parts  indicated 
by  the  above  name,  as  well  as  upon  the  ud'der  of  milch-cows. 

This  disease  has  also  been  observed  in  sheep,  swine,  goats,  the 
deer  family,  occasionally  in  the  horse,  and  cases  have  been  reported 
among  dogs  and  turkeys.  Further,  numerous  cases  of  infection 
have  been  reported  among  human  beings. 

Fleming  says  :  "  It  has  caused  almost  as  much  loss  and  trouble 
to  the  farmers  of  Britain  as  has  the  contagious  bovine  lung-plague. 
In  1876-'77  this  disease  was  reported  as  infecting  11,064  cattle, 
4,809  sheep,  and  1,904  swine  in  the  kingdom  of  Prussia.  It  is 
needless  to  say  that  no  statistics  exist  as  to  its  extension  among  cat- 
tle and  other  animals  in  the  United  States." 

The  asssertion  that  animals  affected  with  it  have  been  exported 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE.  55 

from  this  country  and  landed  in  England,  makes  it  probable  that 
the  disease  has  attained  a  foothold  among  our  animals.     But  ^vhere  i 

Veterinary  science  is  in  a  state  so  much  less  than  embryonal 
in  this  country,  that  no  one  knows  whence  these  animals  came ; 
whether  they  were  diseased  when  leaving  here,  or  what  portion  of 
them  was  diseased. 

This  disease  is  transmissible  to  man.  So  far  as  my  knowledge 
extends,  this  has  only  taken  place  from  diseased  cows. 

Yalentine,  of  Italy,  16l>5,  noticed  the  synchronous  appearance  of 
a  i^ustulous  eniption  in  the  mouths  of  human  beings,  and  a  similar 
disease  among  cattle.  Sagad,  170-1,  was  the  first  to  notice  that  hu- 
man beings  acquired  the  eruption  from  the  consumption  of  milk 
from  cows  affected  with  the  same.  Ilertwig  (of  the  Veterinary 
Institute,  Berlin,  Prussia)  first  proved  the  same  by  direct  experi- 
ment, lie  drank  daily  for  four  consecutive  days  a  quart  of  milk 
taken  from  cows  having  the  disease.  On  the  second  day  he  ob- 
served a  mild  fever,  pains  in  the  limbs,  headache,  a  dry  and  hot 
throat,  and  a  peculiar  sensation  in  the  hands  and  fingers.  These 
mild  phenomena  continued  about  five  days ;  then  the  lining  of  the 
mouth  became  swollen,  especially  the  covering  of  the  tongue.  In 
a  short  time  small  vesicles  began  to  develop.  At  the  same  time 
that  these  eruptions  appeared  in  the  mouth  and  on  the  lips,  ap- 
peared an  eniption  of  similar  character  upon  the  hands  and  fingers. 
Two  medical  practitioners  also  subjected  themselves  to  the  same 
experiment,  and  at  the  same  time  similar  results  followed.  All 
three  recovered  completely.  (Bollinger,  in  Ziemsscn's  "  Ilandbuch 
der  Pathologic,"  vol.  iii,  p.  G37.) 

The  danger  from  the  consumption  of  the  milk  of  cows  afflicted 
with  this  eruption  is  most  emphatically  demonstrated  by  the  fact 
that  young  animals  fed  upon  the  same  frequently  perish  in  conse- 
quence of  gastro-entcritis,  i.  e.,  inflammation  of  stomach  and  bowels. 

For  man,  milk  from  such  cows,  to  which  ninety  per  cent  normal 
milk  has  been  added,  is  still  dangerous  when  consumed.  Cooking 
the  milk  from  such  cows  completely  destroys  its  infectious  qualities. 

Bollinger  gives  the  following  examples  of  the  eniption  of  the 
disease  in  human  beinf]:s  bv  indirect  infection : 

"A  boy  had  a  severe  aphthous  eruption  in  the  mouth  after 
biting  the  edge  of  a  pail  which  was  polluted  with  the  droolings 
from  the  mouth  of  a  diseased  cow."  "  A  man  accidentally  infected 
himself  by  putting  between  his  teeth  a  knife  which  had  been  pol- 
luted in  the  same  manner."  "Another  infected  himself  by  chew- 
ing a  piece  of  wood  which  had  been  used  to  clean  the  mouth  of  a 


56  THE   DISEASES   OF  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

diseased  cow."  "  A  veterinarian  had  a  long-continued  and  painful 
eruption  in  the  mouth  from  touching  the  internal  part  of  the  same 
with  his  finger  after  having  handled  a  diseased  cow." 

In  the  "  Preussische  Mittheil.  aus.  d.  thierarztlichen  Praxis," 
18Y4:-'T5,  are  given  three  cases  of  aphthous  eruption  in  the  mouths 
of  men  who  had  drunk  buttermilk  which  had  been  taken  from  a 
cow  having  foot-and-mouth  disease. 

On  account  of  the  paucity  of  observations  from  competent  medi- 
cal men,  little  is  known  about  the  disposition  of  mankind  to  this  dis- 
ease. Doubtless,  as  in  other  infectious  and  contagious  diseases,  some 
persons  have  a  far  greater  disposition  to  infection  than  others.  Bol- 
linger says,  "  Notwithstanding  the  ruling  opinion  to  the  contrary,  the 
disease  is  much  more  frequent  among  human  beings  than  expected." 

Numerous  observations  have  been  made  of  the  synchronous  en- 
zootic eruptions  of  this  disease  among  cattle  and  an  eruption  in  the 
mouth  of  human  beings. 

The  outbreak  of  this  disease  among  human  beings  is  only  to  be 
prevented  by  competently  educated  and  trustworthy  veterinary  in- 
spectors for  all  dairies,  and  by  the  exact  isolation  of  all  diseased 
animals. 

Such  milk  might  be  cooked  before  being  offered  for  sale ;  but 
the  danger  of  insufficient  or  neglected  cooking  is  too  great  to  justify 
such  a  procedure,  so  that  its  sale  should  be  strictly  forbidden,  and, 
if  persevered  in,  as  strictly  punished. 

Such  milk,  after  heing  thoroughly  coolced,  could  be  appropriately 
used  for  feeding  swine.  Whether  the  consumption  of  butter  and 
cheese  made  from  such  milk  is  dangerous  to  mankind  is  an  open 
question  requiring  more  extended  and  critical  observation. 

Another  subject  which  has  not,  as  yet,  received  by  any  means 
the  attention  which  it  deserves  is,  the  changes  produced  in  milk 
chemically,  and  especially  microscopically,  by  the  presence  of  in- 
flammatory conditions  of  the  udder  of  the  cow. 

a.  The  influences  of  such  milk  should  be  critically  tested  by 
means  of  feeding  experiments  upon  young  and  healthy  animals  of 
the  same  and  different  species  ;  controlled  by  feeding  young  ani- 
mals from  the  same  mother,  or  of  as  nearly  as  possible  like  age  and 
constitution,  upon  the  same  material. 

h.  Are  there  in  such  milk,  from  diseased  udders  or  single  cisterns 
of  the  same,  such  microscopic  changes  as  to  allow  their  recognition 
when  mixed  with  milk  from  perfectly  healthy  cows  ? 

Fiirstenberg  *  has  gone  into  this  subject  with  no  inconsiderable 

*  "Die  Milchdriisen  der  Kuh,"  Leipzig,  1868. 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE.  57 

deirree  of  exactness.  From  his  and  other  researches  it  is  evident 
that  changes  in  the  constitntion  of  the  milk  are  produced  by  so 
sHght  a  change  from  normality  as  a  hypentmic  (increase  of  the 
qnantity  of  blood)  condition  of  the  interstitial  and  subcutaneous  tis- 
sues of  the  udder.  A  comparison  of  such  milk  with  normal,  or, 
when  but  one  cistern  is  complicated,  with  milk  from  the  other  cis- 
terns of  the  same  udder,  has  shown  that  the  solid  elements  are  greatly 
augmented  at  the  expense  of  the  fluid ;  especially  are  the  casein  and 
albumen  augmented,  while  the  normal  milk  contains  more  milk- 
sugar,  and  the  so-called  "extractives"  in  greater  quantity.  The 
inorganic  elements  are  also  considerably  increased  in  the  milk  from 
diseased  udders. 

In  other  words,  such  milk  assumes  characters  simulating  those 
of  colostrum,  containing  the  well-known  colostrum  bodies,  having  a 
yellowish-white  color,  is  viscid,  and  coagulates  easily.  In  such  a 
secretion,  Fiirstenberg  found  the  results  of  chemical  analysis  to  be 
as  follows  : 

Water 81  •  VS9 

Solids 18-211 

Total lOUOOO 

The  solid  elements  were : 

Fat 5-210 

Casein  and  albumen 8  •  887 

Milk-sugar  and  extractives 3  •  070 

Salts. 1-044 

Total 18  211 

These  1-044  salts  consisted  of : 

Phosphoric  salts  and  oxide  of  iron 0  •  384 

Carbonates  of  lime O'lOS 

Chloride  of  sodium  (cooking-salt) 0  003 

Soda 0  549 

Traces  of  sulphuric  acid 0  -  000 

Total 1  044 

From  the  non-diseased  parts  of  the  same  udder  the  results  of  the 
analysis  were  as  follows  : 

Water 88-583 

Solids 11-417 

Total 100000 


58  THE   DISEASES   OF   DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

The  11-417  solids  were  : 

Fat 3 

Casein 3 

Milk-sugar  and  extractives 4 

Salts 


Total 11 

The  mineral  elements  were : 


405 
218 
092 

702 


41 T 


Phosphoric  earths  and  oxide  of  iron 0-317 

Carbonates  of  lime 0*146 

Chloride  of  sodium 0*004 

Soda 0-325 

Traces  of  sulphuric  acid 0-000 


Total 0-702 

The  same  is  true,  except  in  degree,  of  the  more  excessive  grades 
of  inflammation.  The  important  question  is,  Is  such  milk  harm- 
ful, and  to  what  extent  f 

May  not  the  only  too  frequent  cases  of  so-called  "  summer-com- 
plaint "  of  children,  especially  of  those  brought  up  on  the  bottle,  be 
traceable,  in  a  measure,  to  feeding  them  upon  milk  containing  these 
colostrum-like  elements  ? 

We  know  that  colostrum  exerts  a  gentle  purgative  influence.  Is 
it,  then,  going  too  far  to  (in  an  a  priori  manner)  assume  that  such 
milk,  when  continually  given,  may  produce  more  serious  and  lasting 
effects  ? 

This  can  only  be  proved  by  direct  experiment  upon  young  ani- 
mals, which  can  not  be  done  except  at  some  expense  to  the  State. 
It  is,  indeed,  done  by  children,  at  no  expense  to  the  State,  but  at  a 
fearful  cost  of  human  life,  and  all  that  is  needed  to  close  the  evi- 
dence of  this  human  vivisection  is  the  competent  veterinary  expert 
at  the  milk-fountain  end  of  the  route,  and  the  exact  medical  observer 
at  the  other.  I  think  there  would  be  little  difficulty  in  establishing 
the  connection  between  cause  and  effect,  if  animal  life  is  not  too 
precious  and  too  tender  for  sentimental  persons  who  esteem  it  above 
human  at  the  present  day.  While  every  one  is  crying  out  for  more 
economy  in  reference  to  State  expenses,  and  while  many  expenses 
can  doubtless  be  cut  down  with  great  benefit  to  the  people — for  in- 
stance, the  number  of  representatives  might  be  greatly  lessened, 
with  a  corresponding  increase  in  quality — might  it  not  be  well  to 
call  to  mind  the  old  adage  that  "  it  is  not  well  to  hold  on  to  the  spile 
with  all  one's  might,  and  not  look  out  for  the  bung." 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE.  59 

The  work  of  State  boards  of  health  is  not  surely  to  be  limited  to 
gathering  statistics  of  mortality  in  man,  or  ins])ecting  our  water- 
sources  alone,  but  should  extend  to  the  investigation  of  those  experi- 
ments by  which  alone  the  true  causes  of  disease  may  be  discovered. 
We  are  too  ajit  to  satisfy  ourselves  with  iine-sounding  hypotheses 
with  regard  to  the  origin  of  many  so-called  strange  diseases,  which 
a  few  exact  experiments  would  soon  send  to  the  winds,  and  which 
would  lead  to  the  discovery,  if  not  of  the  cause  or  causes,  certainly 
of  means  for  their  prevention. 

The  real  germ  of  small-pox  contagion  has  never  yet  been  posi- 
tively isolated,  although  many  fond  supporters  of  the  micrococcus- 
germ  theory  cherish  an  idea  to  the  contrary  ;  yet  careful  experiment 
and  exact  observation,  in  unison  with  practical  experience,  have 
taught  us  that  exact  attention  to,  and  universal  application  of,  vacci- 
nation, is  an  almost  infallibly  sure  means  of  prevention  against  its 
deadly  ravages. 

AVith  regard  to  this  very  milk  question,  a  few  facts,  gained  from 
actual  experiment,  are  worth  thousands  of  surmises  from  2)racticing 
physicians. 

To  this  end  State  boards  of  health  should  have  at  their  com- 
mand an  experiment  station,  under  the  control  of  a  competently 
educated  person  as  superintendent  and  observer  of  the  experiments. 
Such  a  person  should  be  a  veterinarian,  and  be  at  the  same  time  a 
member  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  ;  the  advantage  to  such  boards 
of  such  a  member  is  by  no  means  appreciated  at  the  present  time, 
either  by  the  members  of  such  boards  or  by  the  people  at  large. 

With  reference  to  the  expenses  of  such  a  station,  the  question 
for  legislators,  and  also  for  the  people,  to  consider,  is  not  one  of  im- 
mediate outlay,  but  whether  it  is  cheaper  to  spend  a  few  thousand 
<l()llars  yearly  for  experiments,  or  to  have  causes  of  disease,  and 
sometimes  death,  existing  for  years,  which  it  is  possible  to  discov- 
er, or  at  least  to  find  means  to  prevent  their  action. 

Another  most  important  question  to  which  I  desire  to  call  atten- 
tion is,  IIar>e  States  or  cities  done  their  whole  (hdy  when  they  have 
appointed  inftpectors  to  examine  milk  after  it  has  left  the  producer^ 
as  it  ?.*  rfady  for  delivery  to  the  consumer  ? 

If,  as  I  can  but  think,  experiment  will  prove  that  the  consump- 
tion of  milk  from  cows  having  diseased  udders,  so  called  "garget," 
is  fraught  with  danger  to  human  health,  then  city  im^pcction^  or  de- 
livery inspection^  is  next  to  usdesn^  and  the  place  for  the  most  im- 
portant inspection  is  at  the  stable  of  the  jrrodncer. 

All   such  cows  should  be  isolated  by  an  official  veterinary  in- 


60  THE   DISEASES   OF  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

spector,  and  tlie  sale  of  the  milk  from  such  isolated  cows  for  human 
consumption  should  be  punished  by  most  severe  penalties. 

In  fact,  the  inspection  of  the  milk  as  it  is  delivered  to  the  dis- 
tributors for  immediate  consumption  can  only  lead  to  the  discovery 
of  dilution — that  is,  cheating  in  value — 7iever  to  the  discovery  of  an 
unhealthy  or  absoliUely  diseased  fountain-head^  i.  e.,  cow  or  cows. 

The  unquestionable  guaranteeing  to  the  public  that  the  cows 
producing  the  milk  are  healthy  is,  in  my  opinion,  far  more  a  matter 
of  necessity,  from  a  hygienic  point  of  view,  than  the  discovery  of  a 
varying  degree  of  watery  dilution,  always  providing  the  water  it- 
self is  pure.  In  the  one  case,  we  have  discovered  a  simple  swindle ; 
in  the  other,  what  might  prove  to  be  the  cause  of  serious  constitu- 
tional disturbances  among  the  consumers. 

It  may  not  be  known  to  many  milk-producers  that  medicine  given 
internally,  and  many  things,  such  as  salves  and  dressings,  especially 
those  used  against  insects,  applied  outwardly,  are  capable  of  exert- 
ing an  influence  upon  milk  which  is  very  likely  to  be  disturbing,  or 
even  injurious,  in  a  far  more  serious  degree  to  the  consumers. 

The  following  examples,  casually  gathered  iu  my  reading,  will 
suflBciently  testify  to  this  remark  : 

Guenther  *  found  antimony  in  milk  after  feeding  the  tartrate 
to  a  cow.  Harms  observed  a  hsemorrhagic  diarrhoea  in  two  dogs 
and  three  young  goats,  after  feeding  them  with  the  milk  from  a  cow 
which  had  been  given  a  large  dose  of  the  above-mentioned  tartrate 
— forty-six  grammes — the  day  before, 

Klink  f  demonstrated  the  presence  of  quicksilver  in  the  milk  of 
a  woman  afflicted  with  syphilis,  that  had  been  subjected  to  the  blue- 
ointment  treatment. 

According  to  Henry  and  Chevallier,  cooking-salt,  bicarbonate  of 
soda,  sulphate  of  soda,  and  iodide  of  potassium,  may  be  discovered 
in  milk  when  given  to  animals. 

Twelve  cows  were  so  infected  by  carbolic  acid,  which  had  been 
used  in  a  strong  solution  to  disinfect  the  stable,  that  human  beings 
who  used  the  milk,  both  cooked  and  uncooked,  became  sick,  but 
finally  recovered.  \ 

A  large  number  of  persons  in  Rome  were  poisoned  from  the 
use  of  goat's  milk.  ||  The  disease,  as  it  appeared  in  these  people, 
was  strongly  characteristic  of  cholera.     Some  persons  recovered  in 

*  "  Jahrcsbericht  d.  Thierarzneischule  zu  Hannover,"  N"o.  6,  p.  72. 
f  "  Vierteljahrsschrift  fiir  Dermatologic  u.  Syphilis,"  1876,  p.  207. 
X  Scholtz,  "Preussische  Mittheil.,"  1874-'75,  p.  109. 
il  "  Med.  u.  Chivurg.  Centralblatt,"  1876. 


DISEASES   OF  CATTLE.  Qi 

the  course  of  seventy-four  liours,  but  the  majority  were  ill  for  some 
four  or  iive  days.  The  violence  of  the  symptoms  was  in  direct  pro- 
portion to  the  (quantity  of  milk  consumed.  The  suspected  fi^oats 
were  subjected  to  a  careful  examination  by  a  veterinarian,  but  noth- 
ing abnormal  discovered.  Their  food  was  next  critically  examined, 
and  the  following  four  poisonous  plants  Avere  found  in  it:  '"  conium 
maculatum,"  "  clematis  vitalba,"  "  colchicum  autumnale,"  "  plum- 
bago Europea."  An  examination  of  the  milk  vomited  by  the  sick 
people  revealed  the  presence  of  colchicum,  which  was  looked  upon 
as  the  cause  of  the  disturbance. 

Tuberculosis  of  Cattle. 

This  disease  of  cattle,  but  especially  the  milch-cow,  is  now  play- 
ing a  most  sensational  role  in  the  discussions  of  hygienists,  more 
esjjccially  those  of  Germany. 

That  the  tendency  or  disposition  to  this  disease  is  transmissible 
from  parents  to  offspring  has  been  placed  beyond  all  question  by 
the  observation  and  experience  of  stock-raisers.  This  fact  is  also 
well  enough  known,  but  by  far  too  little  appreciated,  by  human  be- 
ings with  reference  to  their  own  race. 

Dr.  Bowditch,  of  Boston,  has  clearly  shown  the  influence  which 
long-continued  residence  in  low,  damp,  unhealthy  localities  has  upon 
the  generations  of  the  older  ISTew  England  families  in  extending  or 
keeping  alive  this  disease  ;  but  the  medical  profession  has  been  alto- 
gether too  silent  with  regard  to  hereditar}'  influences. 

Mueller  *  says  that,  basing  his  opinion  upon  988  cases  of  per- 
sonal observation  during  the  course  of  nine  years,  in  21*8  per  cent 
of  the  same  the  parents  had  also  suffered  from  tubercular  consump- 
tion. This  percentage  increases  to  28*0  per  cent,  if  we  take  into 
consideration  the  grandparents,  brothers,  and  sisters.  Other  ob- 
servers assume  that  thirty-eight  per  cent  of  the  deaths  from  tuber- 
cular consumption  in  human  l)eings  is  due  to  hereditary  influence. 
If,  as  said,  stock-raisers  have  learned  a  lesson  from  costly  experience 
in  this  regard,  and  are  applying  principles  of  selection  or  exclusion 
in  their  breeding  of  animals,  is  it  too  late  to  apply  like  principles  to 
human  beings  ? 

Is  it  not  liigh  time  that  the  principles  of  scientific  breeding 
should  be  applied  l)y  man  to  his  own  species  ?  I>eauty,  form, 
money,  position,  should  all  play  their  aj)propriate  part  in  the  selec- 
tion of  the  partner  for  life  by  man  or  woman  ;  but,  as  the  natural 
result  of  marriage,  as  the  result  of  being  made  male  and  female,  is 

*  "Inaugural  Disscrtatioa,"  Bcrnc,  1876. 


62  THE   DISEASES   OF   DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

the  production  of  eliildren,  is  it  not  still  more  imperatively  de- 
manded of  us  to  take  the  health  of  these  products  of  our  lust  more 
frequently  than  our  good  sense  into  earnest  consideration  by  select- 
ing a  partner  from  families  in  which  these  tendencies  have  attained 
the  least  possible  strength  ? 

Have  we  any  right  to  condemn  children  thus  to  lives  of  misery 
and  early  graves?  What  stock-raisers  do  for  their  pockets,  man- 
kind should  certainly  have  sense  enough  to  do  for  their  own  off- 
spring. 

"  'Tis  through  ignorance  they  do  it." 

The  blame  falls  upon  the  shoulders  of  an  incompetent,  avari- 
cious medical  profession.  Consumptive  families  bring  large  fees, 
help  to  buy  corner-lots,  and  enable  the  great  doctor  to  ride  com- 
fortably about  with  coupe  and  coachman. 

But  to  return  to  our  subject.  This  disease  of  cattle  has  been 
practically  known  to  exist  for  a  long  time.  Its  cause  has  been  sought 
in  all  sorts  of  absurdities,  such  as  acrid  or  irritable  substances  in 
food  or  water.  Even  hereditary  influences  failed  for  a  long  time  of 
their  due  appreciation.  In  Germany  the  disease  is  also  known  as 
the  "  Franzosenkrankheit,"  or  French  disease.  It  probably  received 
the  name  when  everything  evil  which  befell  the  German  race  was 
only  too  willingly  attributed  to  their  French  neighbors  as  well  as 
conquerors. 

The  first  intimation  that  some  irritating  or  infectious  elements 
were  contained  in  the  milk  of  cows  having  this  disease  is  due  to 
Gerlach,  the  most  noted  of  all  German  veterinarians,  and  late  di- 
rector of  the  Royal  Veterinary  Institute  at  Berlin. 

The  experiments  of  Yillemin,  Klebs,  Orth,  and  many  others, 
have  amply  demonstrated  that  the  elements  from  tuberculous  dis- 
eased lungs,  lyrnph-glands,  and  other  organs,  contained  some  pe- 
culiar infectious  material  capable  of  producing  a  similar  disease 
when  inoculated  upon,  or  in  some  cases  fed  to,  animals  by  way  of 
experiment. 

With  reference  to  the  milk  of  tuberculous  diseased  cows,  the 
honor  of  priority  is  unquestionably  Gerlach's. 

Here  we  have  to  do  with  a  question  of  manifold  character.  ]N^ot 
only  is  the  j)ublic  health  threatened,  but  both  the  nation  and  each 
individual  dairyman,  or  cow-owner,  has  to  face  a  question  of  no 
secondary  economical  importance. 

If  the  experimental  results  obtained  by  Gerlach  and  other  ob- 
servers, both  German  and  French,  become  universally  accepted,  then 
governments  have  no  other  recom-se  than  to  order  the  most  exact 


DISEASES   OF  CATTLE.  g3 

supervision  of  the  cattle  in  their  respective  countries,  by  wliich  the 
disease  may  be  discovered,  and  their  sale  as  meat  at  the  earliest  pos- 
sible moment  of  such  as  are  suitable.  All  others,  in  which  this  is 
found  unjustitiable  on  account  of  their  condition,  must  be  turned 
over  to  the  knacker. 

The  loss  and  expense  of  such  a  procedure  can  be  best  appreci- 
ated by  the  expert  acquainted  with  the  extreme  extension  which 
this  disease  has  aecpiirod  among  cattle,  especially  milch-cows. 

If  any  government  undertakes  to  stamp  out  this  disease,  it  will 
find  difficulties  by  far  exceeding  those  connected  with  a  t^iaiilar  pro- 
cess by  any  other  contagious  malady. 

The  adage,  ''  Touch  a  man's  pocket  and  you  touch  his  heart,'' 
will  be  more  than  sufficiently  verified. 

In  Germany,  where  the  majority  of  the  milch-cows  are  stall-fed, 
and  that,  too,  in  poorly  ventilated,  ill-arranged  stables,  this  disease 
has  acquired  an  extension  of  which  we  can  at  present  make  no  ap- 
preciation in  this  country. 

The  assertion  of  the  infectiousness  of  the  milk  from  such  cows 
raised  a  perfect  storm  of  abuse  in  Germany,  which  poured  down  on 
the  asserter's  head  until  he  died.  The  more  ignorant,  lazy,  and 
intlifferent  men  were,  the  louder  they  abused.  jMany  men  who  were 
professors  at  the  schools  joined  in  the  cry,  "  Down  with  him ! " 
without  ever  making  the  attempt  to  prove  the  assertions  wrong 
by  direct  experiment.  Succeeding  experiments  have,  however,  es- 
sentially strengthened  the  assertions  of  Gerlach. 

As  these  fii*st  experiments  *  with  reference  to  so  momentous  a 
question  are  worthy  of  all  attention,  I  take  the  liberty  of  noticing 
a  very  few  of  them  in  this  place. 

Having  a  cow  afflicted  with  tuberculosis  that  still  gave  milk, 
it  was  resolved  to  use  the  same  to  test  the  question  "  ic/tet/wr  the 
milkfi'om  such  a  cow  is  capable  of  producing  a  similar  disease  in 
yo>infj  animals  \rhen  fed  \ipon  it.''^  f 

The  cow  was  seven  or  eight  years  old,  much  emaciated,  respira- 
tion difficult,  and  had  a  rough,  weak  cough  ;  vesicular  respiration 
perceptible  over  all  parts  of  the  thorax  which  inclose  the  lungs,  but 
numerous  unnatural,  especially  dry  "  rdles ''  were  perceptible.  In 
no  place  vcas  the  percussion  deaden&l.  No  fever.  Appetite  good. 
Daily  milk  quantum,  1,500  grammes.      After  the  lapse  of  three 

*  It  is  not  our  purpose  here  to  go  into  detail  with  reference  to  these  experimcnls,  but 
we  will  refer  those  interested  to  the  "  Veterinnrv  Journal,"  London  (England),  vols,  viii^ 
ix,  and  x,  where  they  will  find  abundant  material. 

f  Gerlaoh,  "  Experiments  with  Reference  to  the  Milk  of  Cows  having  Tuberculosis.' 
"  Jahresbcricht  d.  Thicrarzneischule  zu  Hannover,"  1868-'69. 


64  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

months  the  cow  was  killed.  The  emaciated  condition  had  grad- 
ually increased,  the  milk-secretion  likewise  decreasing :  in  the  first 
month  the  yield  of  milk  decreased  600  grammes  ;  in  the  second,  500 
grammes,  and  during  the  last  eight  days  the  secretion  ceased  en- 
tirely, although  the  animal  received  all  the  nourishment  she  could 
consume. 

'■'■Autopsy. — The  inner  thoracic  walls,  the  diaphragm,  and  the 
mediastinum  were  covered  with  numerous  tubercles  of  variable  di- 
mensions ;  the  pulmonary  pleura,  or  covering  of  the  lungs,  was  far 
less  complicated.  The  lungs  were  voluminous,  and  double  their 
normal  weight,  l^odules  and  tubercles  were  distinctly  perceptible 
on  palpation.  The  bronchial  lymph-glands  were  hypertrophied — 
enlarged — ^hard  and  nodulated.  Cross-section  of  the  pulmonary  tis- 
sues revealed  the  presence  of  numerous  tubercles  and  tuberculous 
devastations  ;  large  and  small  cavities  filled  with  a  muco-punilent 
mass,  others  with  caseous  material;  numerous  miliary  tubercles 
were  disjjersed  over  the  pulmonary  tissue." 

With  the  milk  from  this  cow  were  fed  two  calves,  two  pigs,  one 
sheep,  and  two  rabbits.  The  first  calf  died  from  an  accidentally  ac- 
quired disease. 

Calf  No.  2.  —  A  healthy,  well-nourished  caK,  eight  days  old, 
was  fed  with  milk  from  the  above-mentioned  cow,  for  a  period  ex- 
tending over  one  and  two  thirds  months ;  at  first  it  received  1,000 
and  later  300  grammes  of  milk  daily,  an  average  of  about  650 
grammes  per  day  ;  in  fifty  days  the  whole  quantity  of  milk  con- 
sumed amounted  to  from  30  to  32  kilogrammes.  Aside  from  this 
the  calf  received  other  milk ;  later,  diluted  milk  and  oatmeal. 
Neither  phenomena  indicating  the  presence  of  disease,  nor  disturb- 
ance of  the  nutritive  functions,  were  observable.  The  calf  was 
killed  one  hundred  days  from  the  time  that  the  experimental  feed- 
ing began,  and  fifty  days  after  the  feeding  with  milk  from  the  tu- 
berculous cow  had  ceased. 

Autopsy. — The  pleura  of  the  shai*p  edges  of  the  right  lung  was 
covered  with  delicate  red,  filamentous  excrescences,  which  extend- 
ed as  a  fringe  about  a  centimetre  beyond  the  edge  of  the  lung. 
Here  and  there  this  neoplastic  production  formed  a  connected  mem- 
brane in  which  were  to  be  seen  miliary  tubercles,  as  refracting 
points.  The  costal  pleura,  the  inner  lining  of  the  ribs,  was  also  irreg- 
ularly covered  with  a  membrane  of  similar  character.  In  the  lungs 
were  to  be  seen  tubercles,  otherwise  the  parenchyma  was  normal ; 
immediately  under  the  pleura  were  to  be  seen  four  small  and  six 
miliary  tubercles,  and  eight  more  were  to  be  seen  in  the  loose  inter- 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE.  (55 

lobular  tissue.  The  smaller  tubercles  were  more  transparent,  and 
bad  a  grayish  color,  having  a  firm  organic  character ;  in  the  center 
of  one  of  the  larger  ones  was  to  be  seen  caseous  material.  The 
bronchial  lymph-glands  were  much  enlarged  ;  inwardly  disturbed 
by  many  purulent  and  caseous  centers  ;  here  and  there  lime-salts 
'were  perce])tible ;  tlie  tuberculous  centers  extended  prominently 
above  the  cut  surface  of  the  gland.  The  mesenteric  and  other 
glands  presented  a  similar  character. 

The  microscopical  examinations  of  the  tubercles  gave  the  same 
characteristics  as  those  of  man. 

Some  of  the  experiments  Avith  the  other  animals  mentioned 
previously  gave  negative,  wliile  othere  were  followed  by  positive,  re- 
sults. 

These  and  other  more  recent  experiments  prove  that  the  milk 
from  cows  complicated  lo'ith  tuberculosis  is  not  only  ]iarmful,  hut 
that  it  also  contains  elements  of  a  specifically  dangerous  cTiaracter  / 
it  is  capahle  of  generating  elements  of  a  similar  character  :  it  there- 
fore hears  the  character  termed  infectious. 

Wliile  I  will  not  go  so  far  as  to  consider  the  above-noticed  and 
other  experiments  as  conclusive  and  unquestionable  evidence  that 
the  milk  from  tuberculous  cows  (and  why  not  human  mothers  ?)  will 
at  all  times  produce  tuberculosis  in  young  animals  fed  on  the  same, 
yet,  such  is  my  confidence  in  the  value  of  the  experiments  made 
by  Gerlach  and  still  later  by  others,  that  for  myself  I  have  no 
doubt  whatever  that  the  milh  from  tuberculous  coios  and  mothers 
will,  in  the  greater  numher  of  cases,  generate  tubercles  in  young  ani- 
mals when  fed  with  sufficient  quantities,  and  for  a  sufficient  length 
of  time,  to  produce  infection. 

The  casual  reader  might  perhaps  fail  to  see  the  point  to  which 
these  conclusions  necessarily  lead  us,  viz.,  that  if  young  animaU 
can  be  thiis  infected,  what  is  there  to  prevent  the  same  taking  place 
in  babes  brought  up  on  the  bottU  ?  I  do  not  wish  to  place  myself 
before  the  public  as  a  visionary  alarmist. 

Here  are  facts,  however,  induced  from  carefully  executed  ex- 
periments, and  by  a  man  noted  for  his  exactness  and  trustworthiness 
in  other  branches  of  researches. 

Bollinger  has  summed  up  the  feeding  experiments  upon  young 
animals,  with  the  milk  in  question,  as  follows: 

'•  Three  pigs — one  successfully,  two  doubtful. 

"  Three  calves — two  successfully,  one  prematurely  died. 

"  One  lamb — one  successfully. 

"  Two  dogs — two  negative  results. 


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DISEASES  OF  CATTLE.  (J  7 

cavities  in  the  same,  and  she  raised  purulent  ichorous  sputa.  She 
died  from  the  disease  Julj  23,  IS 76. 

**  6.  Nurse  Sanger  had  the  habit  of  removing  the  mucus  from 
the  babes'  mouths  bv  means  of  suction  with  her  own ;  and  of  blow- 
ing her  own  breath  into  the  mouths  of  asphyctic  children ;  and,  in 
general,  treated  children  in  a  manner  which  rendered  it  possible 
for  the  expired  air  from  her  own  lungs  to  get  into  theirs,  kissing 
them  much,  etc. 

**  7.  In  three  of  the  cases  of  tubercular  meuingitis  which  came 
to  my  personal  observation,  the  sickness  began  with  bronchitis- 

'*  S.  Meningitis  tuberculosa  is  not  an  endemic  disease  among 
children  at  Neuenburg.  In  the  nine  years,  from  lS0G-'74,  only 
two  deaths  are  reported  from  this  disease  among  children  under 
one  year  old.  Of  twelve  children,  under  one  year  old,  that  died  in 
1S77,  only  one  died  from  this  disease ;  the  parents  of  this  child 
were  both  subjects  of  tubercular  consumption.^' 

These  cases,  and  those  which  follow,  that  were  made  by  an  ac- 
complished veterinarian,  in  connection  with  the  experimental  testi- 
mony which  we  have  brought  together  in  a  simply  suggestive  but 
by  no  means  exhaustive  form,  should  be  more  than  sufficient  to 
call  the  attention  of  every  reflecting  man  and  woman  to  the  fact 
that  tuberculosis  is  not  only  a  disease,  the  disposition  to  which  is 
transmissible  from  parent  to  offspring,  both  human  and  animal,  but 
that  it  is,  under  certain  circumstances,  a  highly  contagious  and  in- 
fectious disease.  They  tell  tis  in  warning  words  that  we  mtist  not 
only  be  most  careful  in  selecting  our  partner  for  life,  but  in  the 
selection  of  the  nurse,  or  maid,  for  children,  and,  when  neoeeeary, 
Oic  coic  from  which  we  are  to  give  them  milk, 

Th^  inifuertCf  of  th<  expired  air  from  the  lung9  cf  caHU  afiieUd 
vcith  the  disease  called  tuberculofis  upon  other  animals  of  the  tame 
sjKci<^  confined  in  the  same  ttahU  tcith  them. 

This  question  is  one  of  vast  praedcal  and  economical  impor- 
tance to  the  farmer  and  dairvman.  I  much  reg^t  that  I  am  so 
entirely  limited  to  the  observations  of  foreigners  upon  cattle  in 
their  own  countries  rather  than  to  observations  gathered  in  our 
own  country ;  but  this  fact  should  stimulate  us  to  more  careful 
consideration  of  these  questions,  even  though  it  be  late  in  the  day 
that  we  begin. 

A  German  veterinarian.  Albert,  contributes  a  very  thoughtftd 
and  interesting  paper,  detailing  personal  observations  bearing  upon 
this  very  point,  in  the  "  Wochenschrift  fur  Thierheilkunde,'^  yoe. 
30  and  31,  ISSO,  under  the  title  '*  The  Tuberculosis  of  Cattle  as  an 


68  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

Infectious  Disease."  The  following  is  a  free  translation  of  the  es- 
sential points  of  this  paper : 

Although  heredity  is  unquestionably  a  very  important  cause  in 
the  generation  of  this  disease  among  cattle,  still  it  does  not  suffice 
to  explain  the  great  extension  which  the  same  acquires  among 
them  ;  especially  is  it  insufficient  in  answering  for  the  eruption  of 
the  disease  among  cattle  in  stables  where  no  breeding  takes  place, 
or  where  the  young  animals  are  brought  in  from  other  places.  In 
such  stables  other  causes  must  be  brought  into  action,  and  these  are 
the  transmission  of  the  disease  from  one  animal  to  another.  I  have 
observed  that  when  there  is  in  a  stable  one  individual  which  contains 
in  its  organism  the  conditions  necessary  to  the  extension  of  the  dis- 
ease— tubercular  process  in  the  lungs — the  disease  extends  to  the 
other  animals — cattle — in  the  same  stable  which  have  been  there 
for  a  sufficient  period.  This  seems  to  conform  to  the  fact  that 
tuberculosis  is  a  disease  peculiar  to  our  domesticated  cattle,  but  not 
to  the  wild  ones  of  the  plains,  and  agrees  with  the  experience  that 
certain  stables  are  looked  upon  as  peculiarly  favorable  to  the  gener- 
ation of  the  disease. 

Of  the  peculiar  metamorphoses  which  tubercles  undergo,  those 
of  caseous  degeneration  offer  the  most  favorable  conditions  for  in- 
fecting the  expired  air  of  a  diseased  animal. 

The  following  cases  will  answer  to  illustrate  the  point  in  ques- 
tion: 

Case  I. — At  the  time  (1848)  that  the  views  of  veterinary  au- 
thors were  most  crude  with  regard  to  the  nature  of  bovine  tuber- 
culosis, I  had  occasion  to  treat  the  disease  upon  a  farm  where  it  had 
prevailed  for  a  long  time,  and  caused  much  loss  to  the  owner. 

Upon  the  farm  were  always  kept  fourteen  milch-cows  and  cattle, 
a  bull,  and  four  calves.  Of  these,  four  head  were  sold  each  year, 
and  replaced  by  the  same  number  of  calves.  The  animals  sold 
were  not  always  of  the  same  age  each  year ;  in  one  year  the  two 
and  three  year  olds  would  be  sold,  in  another  older  cows,  and  the 
third  some  of  each,  according  to  the  fullness  of  the  owner's  purse, 
so  that  there  were  cattle  on  the  farm  two,  six,  and  twelve  years 
old.  Of  these  older  animals,  I  found  on  my  first  examination  two 
afflicted  with  a  rough,  dry  cough,  and  with  accelerated  respiration. 
As  I  was  aware  of  the  constancy  with  which  the  disease  had  pre- 
vailed among  the  owner's  cattle,  it  was  my  advice  to  get  rid  of  these 
two  as  early  as  possible.  This  advice  was  followed.  The  cattle 
were  fattened,  and  upon  being  slaughtered  my  diagnosis  was  con- 
firmed. 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE.  69 

In  the  mean  time  every  attention  was  given  to  the  feeding  and 
general  care  of  the  cattle  upon  the  place. 

In  1851  I  again  found  two  of  the  cattle  that  coughed,  and  grad- 
ually hecame  somewhat  emaciated.  The  attempt  to  fatten  them 
was  partially  successful  in  one,  but  failed  in  the  other.  Both  were 
killed,  and  tuberculosis  found  in  them.  Four  calves  were  placed  in 
the  spring  of  1S52  with  the  cattle  in  the  old  stable,  and  four  others 
placed  where  they  were  taken  from.  All  seemed  to  be  healthy  to 
the  spring  of  185-1,  when  one  of  the  calves,  which  had  become  three 
years  old  and  had  been  placed  in  the  old  stable,  began  to  cough. 
The  cough  was  at  fii*st  very  slight,  but  commenced  to  increase  after 
the  heifer  had  calved.  In  the  following  summer  it  again  dimin- 
ished, to  augment  very  considerably  in  the  fall.  This  animal  was 
put  out  to  graze  in  the  spring  of  1855,  and  to  my  surprise  became 
quite  fat ;  but  upon  being  slaughtered  the  animal  was  found  to  be 
highly  tuberculous. 

Of  the  old  cattle  there  still  remained  a  single  cow,  which  we 
will  call  "  A,"  that  had  always  stood  next  to  the  above-mentioned 
animal.  All  the  others  had  been  sold  and  killed,  their  places  hav- 
ing been  filled  by  new  ones.  This  cow  had  coughed  for  a  long 
time ;  but,  not  suffering  in  condition,  she  had  been  kept,  as  she  was 
a  great  favorite  with  the  farmer's  wife,  especially  as  I  had  not  then 
the  slightest  suspicion  of  infection  by  means  of  the  atmosphere. 
Every  animal  which  during  this  period  had  stood  beside  this  cow 
had  begun  to  cough  after  a  shorter  or  longer  period,  and,  as  the 
positions  of  the  animals  were  sometimes  changed,  it  happened  that 
in  course  of  time  nearly  all  of  them  began  to  have  the  same  sus- 
picious cough. 

The  continued  buying,  rearing,  and  selling  of  cattle  went  on  for 
nine  years  before  I  had  opportunity  to  examine  the  cow  "A," 
which  was  then  sold  to  a  butcher.  The  examination  of  the  body 
and  its  contents  resulted  in  finding  it  highly  tuberculous.  The  re- 
sult of  all  my  experience  awakened  in  me  the  suspicion  of  the 
transmission  of  the  disease  from  animal  to  animal,  an  opinion  which 
was  then  considered  ridiculous.  I  comnmnicated  ni}'  opinion  to  the 
owner,  and  addsed  his  selling  off  all  his  cattle  and  replacing  them 
with  new  and  healthy  ones  from  parents  and  places  where  the  dis- 
ease was  not  known  to  exist.  My  advice  was  appreciated  by  the 
owner  calling  in  a  quack  to  take  my  place. 

Case  II. — On  another  farm  were  kept  from  twenty-four  to 
twenty-six  liead  of  cattle.  In  1864  the  owner  bought  a  calf  to  bring 
up,  the  mother  of  which  died  a  few  years  later  from  tuberculosis. 


70  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

This  calf  developed  very  poorly  for  the  first  two  years  of  its  life ; 
its  neck  and  head  were  small  and  long,  and  its  bones  very  small,  so 
that  the  whole  habitus  of  the  animal  was  cachectic.  This  animal  was 
killed  in  the  fall  of  1869.  In  the  course  of  the  winter  of  1869-70 
many  of  the  cattle  began  to  cough,  and  among  them  two,  "  A  "  and 
"  B,"  so  severely  that  my  services  were  requested. 

I  found  all  the  animals  in  an  apparently  healthy  condition  ;  only 
the  two,  A  and  B,  were  noticed  to  cough.  By  auscultation,  I  found 
in  A  a  peculiarly  marked  bronchial  respiration  in  portions  of  the 
left  lung.  At  this  time  I  knew  nothing  of  the  breeding,  or  the 
phenomena  seen  in  the  above-mentioned  calf,  which  had  been 
slaughtered.  During  this  winter  and  the  succeeding  summer  the 
two  cattle,  A  and  B,  besides  others,  continued  to  cough.  All  the 
animals  on  the  farm  coughed  during  the  winter  of  18Y0-'71,  except 
the  yearlings  and  some  calves  which  were  kept  in  another  stable. 
In  the  spring  of  1871  the  two  cows,  A  and  B,  began  to  emaciate  so 
much  that  it  was  considered  advisable  to  kill  them.  The  autopsy 
revealed  the  general  characteristics  of  tubercular  pneumonia,  and 
tuberculosis  of  other  organs.  Basing  my  opinions  upon  the  pre- 
viously mentioned  experience,  I  made  no  hesitation  in  pronouncing 
all  the  cattle  in  this  stable  that  coughed  as  afflicted  with  tuberculo- 
sis, and  advised  the  owner  to  gradually  get  rid  of  them  all.  On  ac- 
count of  economical  reasons,  this  was  easier  said  than  done,  and  the 
owner  has  never  since  been  free  from  this  disease  among  his  cattle. 

During  the  period  from  1864-'71,  tuberculosis  has  been  always 
present  among  the  cattle  of  this  owner,  who  has  lost  nineteen  head 
from  the  disease  in  that  time. 

The  author  gives  four  other  illustrations  of  similar  extension  of 
tuberculosis  among  cattle  upon  other  farms,  and  closes  his  remarks 
with  the  following  interesting  case  : 

The  milk  from  one  of  these  cows  had  been  used  for  some  time 
in  a  cooked  condition,  but  the  condition  of  the  cow  finally  became 
so  bad  it  was  decided  to  give  the  milk  to  the  hogs,  but  uncoolied. 

From  May  of  the  same  year,  the  farmer's  wife  noticed  that  the 
young  pigs  (four  or  five  months  old)  fed  upon  this  milk  did  not  ap- 
pear to  thrive  well,  and  as,  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  three  died, 
I  was  requested  to  make  an  examination  of  the  last  one.  I  found 
the  same  much  emaciated.  I  found  a  tuberculous  peritonitis  with 
effusion  in  the  caWty  of  that  organ.  The  lungs  and  bronchial  glands 
were  normal;  the  mesenteric  glands  enlarged — on  section  of  the 
same,  found  them  filled  with  a  tuberculous  mass ;  tubercles  in  the 
liver.     In  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  the  two  remaining  pigs  of  the 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE.  71 

litter  also  died.  I  found  tuberculosis  in  one  of  them,  and  the  owner 
told  me  that  the  other,  and  another  of  an  older  litter  which  was 
with  them,  and  fed  on  the  same  milk,  were  also  found  tuberculous 
on  being  exaiiiined. 

Unfortunately,  in  tliis  country,  there  are  not  at  present  any  sta- 
tistics witli  reference  to  the  extension  which  this  disease  ha,s  attained 
among  our  cattle,  and  the  same  is  almost  true  with  reference  to  other 
lands.  The  following  meager  statistics  may  not,  however,  be  with- 
out interest  to  the  reader : 

Statistics  wrrii  reference  to  Tuberculosis  among  Bavarian 
Cattle  for  the  Year  1877. 

Tuberculotts. 

Males 809.  Females 4,107. 

1-G2  to  the  1,000. 

64  under  one  year,  or 1"31  per  cent. 

528  from  one  to  three  years,  or 1081       " 

1,846  from  three  to  six  years,  or 37-80       " 

2,445  over  six  years,  or 5007       " 

Goring,  "  Zeitschrift  fur  Thierheilkunde,"  4,  286. 

From  January  1  to  December  31, 1874,  were  killed  at  Augsburg, 
Bavaria,  11,331  cattle  (calves  excluded)  ;  of  tliese  134  were  tnhercu- 
lous,  1"18  per  cent ;  42  males  (13  bulls  and  29  steers);  92  females. 
Of  the  whole  number  slaughtered,  about  one  third  were  males  and 
two  thirds  females. 

For  the  year  1876  were  killed  13,241  cattle  and  25,909  calves. 
Of  these,  250  were  foimd  tuberculous ;  viz.,  243  cattle  over  one 
year  old,  one  calf  three  weeks  old. 

The  percentage  for  1876  was  1*84;  for  1875,  1*40;  for  1874, 
MS  ;  for  1873,  1-02;  for  1872,  1-27.  For  1876,  75  males  and  168 
females.     Of  the  males,  39  were  castrated  and  36  were  not. 

Statistics  of  Diseases  found  amono  Animals  slaughtered  at 
Munich  in  1874. 

"Whole  number  slaughtered  at  the  public  shambles  : 

i  Oxen 231 

Cattle  ^  fj^^^  ^^^  ^^^^j.^ g  290 

Calves , 4,201 

Sheep 1,563 

Swine 808 

Of  the  frequent  diseases  were  observed : 


Y2  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

Pulmonary  tuberculosis  in  one  goat  and 235  cattle. 

Perlsucht,  or  tuberculosis  of  the  serosaa 197      " 

Tuberculosis  of  the  liver 29       " 

Tuberculosis  of  the  udder 1       " 

Tuberculosis  of  the  bones 2       " 

Abscess  in  the  lungs 45       " 

Pleuro-pneumonia 20      " 

Echinococcus  of  the  lungs 44      " 

Echinococcus  of  the  liver 10      " 

Induration  of  the  liver 264      " 

Distoma  hepaticum 219       " 

Icterus 20  calves. 

Nephritis,  suppurative 12  cattle. 

Abscess  in  udder  and  mastitis 8       " 

Scabies 242  sheep. 

Osteomalacia 9  cattle. 

Measles 4  swine. 

Slunk  veal 57  calves. 

Nauseous  appearance  of  flesh  in  one  swine  and 25       " 

"Department  veterinarian  Pauli  reports*  that  12,585  kilo- 
grammes of  flesh  were  officially  destroyed  at  the  investigation  sta- 
tions in  Berlin  from  18TT  to  1878.  Further,  1,646  cattle,  2,027 
swine,  235  calves,  and  714  sheep,  were  killed  in  the  police  slaughter- 
house to  determine  their  hygienic  condition.  Of  these,  213  cattle, 
643  swine,  196  calves,  and  382  sheep  were  found  unfit  for  food.  Of 
the  213  cattle,  49  suffered  from  general  '  tuberculosis  and  initial 
emaciation,'  46  'from  general  tuberculosis  and  cachexia,'  and  22 
'from  tuberculosis,  general  hydrops,  and  cachexia,'  and  85  swine 
were  found  measly.  In  998  cattle,  1,466  swine,  8  calves,  and  107 
sheep  were  found  single  diseased  organs,  which  forbade  using  the 
flesh  for  human  food." 

There  is  no  subject  more  urgently  requiring  the  attention  of 
boards  of  health  and  the  people  than  this. 

However  important  trichiniasis  may  be,  this  far  exceeds  it.  The 
few  experiments  which  have  been  made  should  be  repeated  by  hun- 
dreds— yes,  thousands,  if  necessary — by  carefully  selected  men,  and 
at  the  expense  of  the  State,  until  this  question  is  forever  settled  ^ro 
or  con. 

"While  this  is  being  done,  competent  veterinarians  (not  empirics) 
should  be  engaged  by  the  respective  State  boards  of  health  to  gather 
reliable  statistics  with  reference  to  the  extension  of  tubei'culosis 
among  the  cattle  of  each  State. 

It  would  be  well  that  the  National  Board  of  Health  instigate  the 
work. 

*  "Mittheil.  aus  d.  Thieriirzt.  Praxis,"  1877-78,  p.  99. 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE.  73 

As  the  statistical  results  of  the  experiments  which  liave  been 
made  unquestionably  go  to  prove  that  such  milk  does  contain  ele- 
ments of  a  spccijicalbj  infectious  character,  there  is  no  question  that 
laws  should  he  made,  and  executed  also,  so  as  to  prevent  the  sale  of 
such  milk  for  human  consumption,  either  for  itself  or  mixed  with 
other  milk,  in  no  matter  how  small  quantities. 

Xo  such  milk  should  be  sold ;  but  such  cows  should  be  strictly 
isolated  and  fattened,  or  condemned. 

This  question  of  the  specific  infection  of  milk  from  tuberculous 
cows  is  no  trifling  matter ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  one  of  life  and 
death.  IIow  many  thousand  babies  are  yearly  brought  up  on  the 
bottle  with  cow's  milk  ! 

All  the  fond  parents  ask  is,  that  the  milk  is  from  one  cow.  This 
guaranteed,  they  appear  to  feel  perfectly  satisfied.  No  one  seems 
yet  to  have  thought  that  a  trustworthy  and  expert  guarantee  of  the 
hygienic  condition  of  the  cow  giving  the  milk  was  necessary.  We 
make  great  demands,  and  get  terribly  excited  about  the  purity  of 
our  water-supply.  "We  spend  millions  of  dollars  to  keep  the  foun- 
tains pure,  and  to  prevent  all  foreign  admixtures  on  its  passage  to 
us.  Is  it  not  as  much  our  duty  to  examine  into  the  purity  of  the 
fountains  from  which  comes  our  milk-supply  ? 

"We  can  not  but  repeat  our  assertion  that  every  State  board  of 
health  should  be  liberally  supplied  with  funds  to  be  used  exclusively 
for  experimental  purposes,  and  in  every  State  there  should  be  a 
station  for  such  purposes. 

I  do  not  know  that  it  has  ever  yet  been  proved  by  direct  experi- 
ment how  much  dilution  it  is  possible  to  give  to  milk  hj  means  of 
unduly  watery  food  given  to  the  cow,  or  how  much  the  milk  can  be 
concentrated,  in  one  and  the  same  cow,  by  systematically  lessen- 
ing the  quantity  of  fluid  given  consistent  with  the  health  of  the 
animal. 

The  first  form  of  feeding  might  he  well  called,  dilution  of 
milk  icithin  the  law,  while  when  the  water  is  added  after  milking 
we  have  dilution  Mnder penalty  of,  or  vjithout,  the  law. 

Both  forms  of  dilution  are  equally  a  swindle  upon  the  con- 
sumer. 

An  economy  which  does  not  recognize  the  absolute  necessity  of 
such  experiments  as  the  above  is  of  the  "  penny-wise  but  pound- 
foolish  variety,"  and  never  in  the  true  interests  of  the  public. 


Y4  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  AXIMALS. 

Anthkax  {Carbuncle). 

Anthrax  is  the  disease  of  all  the  diseases  strictly  due  to  germ-life 
which  is  best  understood  by  scientists.  Before  considering  it,  how- 
ever, we  desire  to  introduce  some  general  remarks,  and  then  to  con- 
sider the  subject  of  germ-infection,  though  in  a  very  general  manner. 

The  word  infectio  means  to  pollute. 

The  subject  of  infection  is  one  of  the  most  theoretic  connected 
with  the  study  of  medicine. 

To  theorize  does  not  mean  to  dream  of  things  possible,  as  the 
major  part  of  the  j^eople  and  too  many  professionals  seem  to  think. 
To  be  called  a  theorist,  if  one  is  in  reality  such,  is  by  no  means  a 
disgrace ;  on  tlie  contrary,  it  is  the  highest  honor  that  can  be  given. 
It  means,  truly,  that  one  is  a  man  capable  of  reasoning,  both  by  in- 
duction and  deduction.  To  be  called  a  jfyractical  man  means  that 
you  know  nothing  but  routine  practice,  or  what  one  has  inherited 
from  teachers  and  fathers,  and  that  we  are  incapable  of  reasoning. 
Theory  is  the  connecting  link,  the  hypothetical  bridge  of  explanation 
between  two  known  facts. 

These  facts  are,  first,  that  something  takes  place;  second,  the 
phenomena  by  which  you  recognize  that  something  has  taken  place. 
The  empiric  is  satisfied  with  this  knowledge.  It  is  enough  for  him 
that  a  horse  has  colic,  and  that  certain  symptoms  indicate  it,  and 
that  in  general  a  dose  of  a  certain  medicine  will  cure  it.  This  is 
being  practical. 

To  theorize  means  to  be  able  to  think,  and  to  think  logically  and 
well — to  be  able  to  trace  the  connection  between  cause  and  effect. 
If  there  is  any  disgrace  in  this,  then  those  who  are  called  theorists 
are  generally  in  most  honorable  company. 

The  trouble  with  our  profession  is  and  has  been  that  it  has  never 
yet  produced  a  great  thinker.  Xot  one  of  the  men  whose  names 
you  have  been  taught  to  revere  as  great  among  veterinarians  have 
ever  been  great  thinkers.  Even  human  medicine  has  been  noto- 
riously wanting  in  this  regard. 

Good  thinkers  are  scarce  at  best.  The  Bacons,  Goethes,  Des- 
cartes, Humes,  and  Franklins  of  this  world  are  always  phenomenal. 
The  great  practitioners  have  been  numerous ;  the  great  thinkers  in 
medicine  can  be  counted  upon  the  fingers  of  one  hand.  They  are 
the  men  who  have  shaped  the  course  of  medicine  for  years  after 
their  death,  and  frequently  dunng  their  lives. 


INFECTION.  Y5 

lias  veterinary  medicine  ever  produced  a  Bichat  or  a  Yirchow  ? 
When  it  docs,  it  will  stand  scientifically  on  a  level  witli  human  medi- 
cine, and  not  till  then ;  for  then  it  will  for  a  time  give  the  direction 
to  all  medical  research  and  thought.  Good  theorists  arc  ever  prac- 
tical in  the  best  sense  of  the  word ;  for  practical  does  not  always 
mean  a  knowledge  of  therapeutics  alone,  as  many  teach.  An  erro- 
neous theory,  ably  defended,  is  of  more  benefit  to  the  world  than 
a  true  one  which  lacks  earnest  defenders  or  combaters.  It  stirs  men 
up,  and  leads  to  the  discovery  of  the  tnitli. 

Darwinism  has  been  the  greatest  blessing  to  natural  science  that 
the  nineteenth  century  has  produced,  even  though  all  its  premises 
should  finally  be  proved  incorrect.  You  have  only  to  think  of  the 
immense  increase  of  our  knowledge  of  the  lower  forms  of  life,  of 
the  physiological  functions  of  both  lower  and  higher  animals,  to  re- 
alize this. 

Some  of  our  very  best  veterinarians  are  getting  by  far  too  con- 
ceited, and  this  conceit  is  unfortunately  becoming  inoculated  into 
the  rising  generation. 

There  is  no  such  thing  in  existence  as  veterinary  science. 

"We  speak  of  veterinary  pathologists,  when  in  reality  we  have 
never  Lad  a  single  one.  Pathologists  and  pathological  anatomists 
are  entirely  different  things,  though  occasionally  united  in  one 
person. 

Bichat  and  Yirchow  were  pathologists,  because  they  were  good 
thinkers.  Pathology  is  the  philosophy  of  disease.  They  were  or 
are  pathological  anatomists,  because  they  could  correctly  read,  that 
is,  describe  the  results  of  disease.  From  these  reaults  they  theo- 
rized ;  that  is,  from  facts  they  thought ;  that  is,  they  tried  to  tell  us 
how  the  results  took  place,  for  no  man  has  yet  seen  the  processes  of 
disease. 

AVhat  we  see  upon  the  dissection-table,  or  under  the  microscope, 
is  not  the  processes  of  disease,  but  the  results. 

If  we  are  practical  in  the  world's  sense,  these  results  will  be  of 
no  value  to  us ;  if  we  are  theorists,  they  may  be  very  instructive, 
and  we  can  become  truly  practical. 

I  have  said  that  Yirchow  and  Bichat  were  pathologists,  and  that 
veterinary  medicine  had  never  produced  a  pathologist. 

This  is  a  fact,  contradict  it  who  nuiy.  P>ut  if  we  have  not  ]>:-o- 
duced  pathologists,  we  have  pathological  anatomists,  some  say. 

Again  I  say,  all  wrong.  A  pathological  anatomist  is  a  man  who 
correctly  describes  the  results  of  disease,  of  which  Rokitansky  is  a 
striking  example. 


76  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

Have  we  produced  sucli  a  man  ?  Do  our  text-books  tell  us  much 
of  the  results  of  disease  in  our  animals  ?  Some  may  quote  to  me  the 
names  of  Gerlach,  Roell,  "Williams,  Leisering,  Bouley,  Chauveau, 
Toussaint,  and  others,  not  one  of  whom  deserves  to  be  named  with 
a  Rokitansky,  a  Yirchow,  or  a  Bichat. 

They  have  done  some  good  experimental  work,  in  a  very  limited 
field,  and,  like  one  solitary  star  shining  out  from  a  dark  and  clouded 
heaven,  loom  up  all  too  conspicuously — thankful,  as  we  are,  that 
they  have  done  something  to  make  veterinary  medicine  worthy  of 
notice.  But  where  is  our  pathological  anatomy  ?  "What  is  Roell, 
the  best  of  German  works  on  special  pathology  ?  Has  it  any  original 
pathological  anatomy  ?  It  is  Rokitansky  from  beginning  to  end  ; 
that  is,  human  results  transferred,  without  criticism,  to  animal  con- 
ditions. Briickmliller's  "  Pathological  Zootomy,"  the  only  work  on 
pathological  anatomy  of  our  animals,  is  another  abortion,  born  too 
early  to  have  anything  in  it  but  adapted  Rokitanskyism. 

What  do  we  know  about  the  microscopic  pathological  anatomy 
of  the  brain,  the  kidneys,  or  any  single  organ  of  our  animals  ?  The 
macroscopical  conditions  are  fairly  described ;  the  microscopical  have 
been  scarcely  thought  of,  but  borrowed  from  human  medicine. 

Have  we  a  single  contagious  disease,  the  pathological  conditions 
of  which  have  been  carefully  studied  and  described  by  veterinari- 
ans ?     Ko ! 

Do  we  know  the  pathological  condition  of  the  lungs,  in  direct 
progress  from  beginning  to  end,  in  pleuro-pneumonia  ? 

Are  our  methods  of  investigation,  urine  analysis,  microscopic 
technic  and  examination,  any  of  them,  the  result  of  veterinary  gen- 
ius ?     No — all,  all  borrowed  ! 

Then  why  speak  of  veterinary  science  ?  These  things  are  not 
written  to  discourage,  but  rather  to  stimulate,  for  I,  for  one,  believe 
the  day  will  come  when  veterinary  medicine  will  have  its  patholo- 
gists who  shall  give  the  key-note  to  medical  thought,  and  veterinary 
pathological  anatomists  equal  to  any  that  human  medicine  has  had, 
or  will  ever  produce. 

In  that  day  we  shall  not  grope  in  darkness,  but  shall  see  things 
as  they  really  are.  "We  must  learn  to  observe  well,  and,  above  all, 
to  think  well,  and  next  to  that  to  be  able  to  express  ourselves  well. 
Medicine  has  its  language,  and  the  exact  and  logical  use  of  language 
is  the  best  characteristic  of  an  educated  man. 

I  will  illustrate  my  meaning  by  a  few  of  the  incongruities  of 
medical  literature.  We  frequently  read  of  collapsed  conditions 
of  the  lungs,  by  which  is  meant  the  dark-blue,  airless  spots  which 


INFECTION'.  77 

He  somewliat  beneath  the  general  level  of  the  pleura.  This  is  real- 
ity atelectasis  puliiionum,  that  is,  airless.  The  structural  changes  of 
the  lung  by  M'hicli  this  condition  and  true  collapse  are  produced 
ai'e  absolutely  diliorent.  In  atelectasis  we  have  a  shutting  olf  of  the 
supply  of  air,  a  gradual  absorption  of  that  which  was  present,  and 
a  consequent  retraction  of  the  pulmonary  tissue,  by  which  the  blood- 
vessels come  nearer  together;  a  non-oxidation  of  the  blood  in  the 
same,  hence  the  darker  color;  hut  tJie  lung-tissite  retracts,  it  retains 
its  ehuticitij.  In  coUapsris  pnlmmunn  the  hing-tissiie  has  lost  its 
elasticity^  an  entirely  diiierent  condition.  Such  a  lung  has  lost  all 
the  springy  characteristics  of  normal  lung-tissue ;  it  is  dead,  doughy  to 
the  touch,  which  is  never  the  case  in  atelectasis.  Again,  clinicians 
speak  of  hepatization,  instead  of  solidification  or  infiltration  of  the 
lung.  Plepatization  means,  indeed,  solidified  (liver-like),  hut  only  to 
the  touch.  The  observation  and  language  of  the  dissection-table  have 
been  transferred  to  the  bedside,  where  they  do  not  belong.  Each 
place  has  its  appropriate  language. 

"We  speak  of  apoplexia  cerebri,  as  if  there  were  no  other  form  of 
apoplexy,  whereas  the  word  means  to  strike  down,  to  cease  acting 
suddenly;  hence  we  may  also  have  apoplexia  cordis,  pulmonum, 
laryngia,  medulla  oblongata,  all  organs  the  continual  action  of 
which,  or  of  ])arts  of  them,  are  absolutely  necessary  to  the  continu- 
ance of  life.  We  here  again  mix  up  cause  and  effect.  Apoplexy 
is  the  cessation  of  function,  not  the  cause.  The  hremoiThages  in 
the  brain  are  that  and  nothing  more ;  but  because  in  some  cases 
apoplexy  accompanies  them,  they  are  not  always  apoplectic  centei*s. 
The  part  complicated,  or  the  amount  extravasated,  causes  the  clinical 
expression  apoplexy. 

While  these  things  have,  as  it  were,  become  sanctified  by  usage, 
they  are  not  in  accordance  with  the  logical  use  of  language. 

Concussion  of  the  brain,  by  which  life  ceases,  may  be  supposed 
to  take  place  without  ha?morrhage,  yet  is  essentially  apoplexia  cere- 
bri, though  we  never  hear  it  spoken  of  as  such. 

"With  reference  to  some  of  the  infectious,  or,  better,  contagious 
diseases,  we  find  medical  writers  falling  into  the  same  error  when 
they  speak  of  the  elements  by  which  the  disease  is  transmitted  to 
human  beings  as  "animal  poisons."  There  are  animal  poisons, 
such  as  come  from  reptiles  ;  but  the  infectious  elements  of  the  con- 
tagious diseases  are  not,  logically  speaking,  poisons. 

A  poison  is  something  which  in  well-defined  quantities  causes 
specific  effects.  Unless  this  quantity  of  a  given  poison  is  intro- 
duced into  the  system,  this  effect  does  not  follow. 


f^^  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

In  contagious  diseases  the  quantity  necessary  to  infection  can 
not  be  measured.  The  elements  of  infection  in  contagious  disease 
multiply  within  the  organisms  into  which  they  are  introduced. 
Poisons  do  not  thus  multiply  of  themselves. 

The  quantity  of  poison  remains  the  same,  unless  a  second  intro- 
duction takes  place. 

Infectious  or  contagious  diseases  have  their  period  of  incuba- 
tion— that  is,  a  period  elapses  before  the  infected  organism  shows  to 
us  that  anything  has  taken  place.  Even  in  inoculation  the  action  is 
not  immediately  visible.  In  some  diseases,  as  rabies,  this  period  may 
extend  over  weeks  or  months,  while  in  others  only  a  few  days  elapse. 

By  poisons  the  action  is  immediate,  provided  the  quantity  intro- 
duced is  sufficient. 

Infectious  diseases  have  their  cycles,  or  stages.  They  have  the 
above  period  of  incubation,  their  period  of  full  development,  and 
that  of  reconvalescence,  their  "  stadium  accrementi  and  decrementi," 
while  poisons  have  no  such  course. 

The  diseases  which  are  known  as  contagious,  or  infectious,  do 
not  by  any  means  belong  to  a  single  class  or  group. 

"We  have  the  group  of  acute  exanthemata,  such  as  the  variolas, 
measles,  scarlatina,  certain  forms  of  mange,  the  foot-and-mouth  dis- 
ease, the  maladie  du  coit,  and  the  pustulous  eruption  upon  the  genitals 
of  our  domestic  animals.  These  diseases  are  frequently  accompanied 
by  catarrhal  conditions  of  the  respiratory  or  digestive  tracts,  with 
cerebral,  hepatic,  or  splenic  disturbances ;  but  these  latter  do  not 
constitute  the  essentials  of  the  disease.  They  are  also  generally  ac- 
companied by  fever,  which  of  itself  is  nothing  specific,  fever  being 
a  general  phenomenon  accompanying  all  serious  constitutional  dis- 
turbances. 

There  is  no  such  thing  as  specific  fevers.  Of  specific  causes 
there  are  many. 

"We  have  also  a  group  of  infectious  diseases  known  as  the  acute 
intestinal,  that  tract  being  the  chief  seat  of  the  same,  though,  as 
with  the  above,  other  parts  or  organs  do  not  escape  compHcatiou. 
Such  are  abdominal  typhus,  cholera,  dysentery,  and  rinderpest. 

Then  we  have  those  of  the  respiratory  tract,  the  influenzas — a 
collective  name — pharyngitis  et  laryngitis  diphtheritica,  tussis  con- 
vulsiva,  pleuro-pneuraonia,  and  the  malarial  influenza,  or  pneumo- 
pleuro-enteritis  of  the  horse.  Also  the  group  of  septic  diseases, 
which  embraces  those  classed  under  the  general  names  of  septicae- 
mia or  pyaemia,  erysipelas,  gangrena  septica,  phlegmonia,  puerperal 
fever,  etc. 


IXFECTIOX.  79 

Another  group  embraces  the  so-called  essential  or  malarial  fevers, 
such  as  febris  reciirrens,  llava,  and  the  Texas  cattle-fever ;  and, 
finally,  the  zoonoses,  or  contagio-infectious  animal  diseases,  rabies, 
glanders,  anthrax,  as  well  as  those  peculiar  to  one  species  or  an- 
other, as  syphilis  of  man. 

After  these  general  remarks  we  will  now  consider  what  are  at 
present  looked  upon  as  the  elements  of  infection,  in  one  form  or 
another,  of  all  these  different  groups — viz. : 

The  Bacteria. 

"What  arc  bacteria  ? 

'*■  Cells  deprived  of  chlorophyl,  of  globular,  oblong,  or  cylindrical 
form,  sometimes  sinuous  and  twisted,  reproducing  themselves  exclu- 
sively by  transverse  division,  scissiparity,  also  by  spores,  bacillus 
subtilis,  living  isolated  or  in  groups,  and  having  affinities  to  the  algt\»." 

Owing  to  their  microscopic  minuteness,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered 
at  that  most  varying  views  have  been  held  as  to  their  real  nature 
and  place  among  living  things. 

That  they  constitute  veritiibly  a  contaglum  vivion,  that  is,  are 
living  things,  there  is  at  present  no  doubt,  various  as  have  been  the 
opinions  as  to  what  the  true  meaning  of  such  a  term  should  be. 

A  living  contagium  is  such  by  which  the  infectious  elements 
have  the  principal  characteristics  of  life ;  that  is,  they  live  and  die, 
and  are  capable  of  reproducing  themselves :  whether  the  reproduc- 
tion takes  places  within  or  without  the  animal  organism  is  non- 
essential to  our  definition. 

Even  very  ancient  writers  seem  to  have  arrived  at  some  vague 
idea  of  the  existence  of  a  contaglum  vivum.  "We  find  the  same  in 
the  writings  of  the  Roman  fathers  of  agricultural  and  veterinary 
literature  of  the  fourth  century,  A.  D,  "V^aro  and  Columella,  who 
asserted  that  many  malarial  fevers  were  caused  by  the  penetration 
of  lower  organisms  into  the  body.  Even  before  the  discovery  of 
the  microscope,  animal  organisms  were  supposed  to  have  an  etio- 
logical connection  with  the  pest. 

Leeuwenhoek,  the  fatlier  of  microscopy,  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  observer  who  described  anything  like  tnie  bacteria.  This  oc- 
curred in  1075,  while  examining  some  water,  in  whicli  he  describes 
minute  globules  as  crossing  the  objective  field.  The  following  year 
he  recognized  similar  objects  in  fteces,  and  the  tartar  from  the  teeth, 
and  gives  such  descriptions  that  we  are  warranted  in  assuming  that 
they  were  bacteria,  vibrios,  and  leptothrix. 

An  author  of  the  seventeenth  century  attributed  the  epizootics 


80  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

which  prevailed  at  that  time  to  the  action  of  some  sort  of  grass- 
hopper or  locust,  and  recommended  that  the  inhabitants  make  large 
fires  to  drive  away  or  kill  them,  in  order  to  prevent  the  diseases. 

Later,  we  find  various  absurd  ideas  being  supported,  and  cholera, 
variola,  syphilitic  and  other  animals  described  by  authors  as  being 
the  specific  cause  of  such  diseases. 

Such  absurdities  led  to  the  ridicule  of  the  idea  of  living  infec- 
tious elements,  which  found  its  counterpart  in  the  idea  of  infectious 
gases,  a  theory  which  has  been  of  late  abandoned,  owing  to  the 
great  advances  in  microscopy  and  the  technicalities  of  scientific  re- 
search during  the  last  ten  years. 

The  Classification  of  Bactekia. 

As  early  as  1773  O.  F.  Miiller  made  an  attempt  to  classify  these 
objects ;  others  followed,  among  them  the  noted  German  natural- 
ist Ehrenberg  in  1838,  and  the  Frenchmen  Dujardin  (18'11)  and 
Davaine. 

Ehrenberg  speaks  of — 

1.  Bacteria,  as  filaments  linear  and  inflexible,  and  gives  three 
species. 

2.  Yibrios  :  filaments  linear,  flexible  ;  nine  species. 

3.  Spirillum  :  filaments  spiral,  inflexible ;  three  species. 

4.  Spirochaete  :  filaments  spiral,  flexible ;  one  species. 
Dujardin  (1841)  classed  them  as — 

1.  Bacterium :  filaments  rigid,  with  vacillating  movement. 

2.  Yibrio :  filaments  flexible,  with  undulatory  movement. 

3.  Spirillum  ;  filaments  spiral,  with  rotary  movement. 

Up  to  this  time  the  bacteria  had  been  looked  upon  as  animals, 
and  placed  at  the  foot  of  that  kingdom.  Later,  the  idea  that  they  be- 
longed to  the  vegetable  kingdom  has  been  gradually  gaining  ground, 
and  is  at  present  almost  universally  accepted  ;  although  the  renowned 
German  naturalist  Haeckel  places  them  in  his  intermediate  class  or 
kingdom  of  protista.  Davaine  (1859)  was  the  first  to  clearly  demon- 
strate the  vegetable  nature  of  the  vibrios,  and  their  near  relation  to 
the  algte. 

Davaine's  classification  was  as  follows:  Filaments  straight  or 
bent,  but  not  spiral,  moving  spontaneously.  "Wlien  rigid,  bacterium ; 
when  flexible,  vibrio ;  when  motionless,  bacteridium  ;  when  the  fila- 
ments were  spiral,  spirillum. 

From  this  time  on  we  find  the  study  of  these  objects  assuming  a 
new  and  more  exact  character,  thanks  to  the  work  of  Pasteur,  Da- 
vaine, Haller,  Cohn,  Koch,  and  others. 


INFECTION. 


81 


The  absence  of  cliloropliyl  distinguishes  tliem  from  the  algic,  and 
places  thera  among  the  fungi ;  a  view  which  is  supported  by  nearly 
all  the  best  botanists  of  our  day.  The  generally  accepted  classifica- 
tion is  at  ])res(.'nt  that  of  Colin,  and  is — 

1.  Spherobacteria,  or  globular  bacteria. 

2.  Micro  or  roil  bacteria. 

3.  Desmo  or  tihimentous  bacteria. 

4.  Spiro  or  spiral  bacteria. 

In  1874  l>illruth,  the  noted  surgeon  and  author  on  surgical  pa- 
thology, published  a  large  work  upon  disease-germs — viz.,  upon 
coccobacteria  septica — and  arrived  at  very  different  conclusions  from 
those  of  Colin,  wliich  have  not,  however,  gained  any  general  accept- 
ance. BiUroth  chiims  tliat  there  is  but  one  single  original  species 
of  bacteria,  and  that  all  others  are  derived  from  it,  viz.,  coccobacteria 
septica.  This  vegetable  organism  may  present  itself  in  two  forms: 
the  globuhir  coccus,  and  that  of  rods,  hacteria.  These  two  forms 
may  reproduce  by  elongation  and  transverse  division,  or  may  pass 
from  one  to  the  other. 

According  to  the  variation  in  size,  Billroth  speaks  of  micrococcus, 
microbacteria ;  mesococcus,  mesobacteria ;  megacoccus,  megabacte- 
ria.  And,  according  to  their  relations  to  one  another,  as  mono- 
coccus,  monobacteria  ;  diplococcus  (in  pairs),  diplobacteria  ;  strepto- 
coccus (in  chains),  streptobacteria ;  gliococcus,  gliobacteria  ;  petalo- 
coccus  (foot  or  base),  petalobacteria. 

"We  have  said  that  the  most  generally  accepted  classification  was 
that  of  Cohn,  but,  before  considering  it  more  particularly,  we  feel 
obliged  to  notice  that  of  another  noted  German  author,  which  is 
based  upon  the  action  of  these  germs. 

Xiigeli  speaks — 

1.  Of  mucorini,  or  mold-fungi. 

2.  Saccharomycetes,  or  budding  fungi,  which  produce  the  fer- 
mentation of  wine,  beer,  yeast,  etc. 

3.  Schizomycetes,  or  fission-fungi,  which  produce  putrefactive 
processes.     This  group  end)races  the  micrococci  and  bacteria. 

I.  Sphekobacteria.  —  Spherical  bacteria  are  defined  by  their 
name.  Tlu-y  are  round  or  oval  bodies  of  vor}*  small  size.  They  arc 
sometimes  found  isolated,  often  appearing  in  pairs — diplococcus  ;  or 
again  we  meet  with  them  in  the  ff)rm  of  chains,  or  articulations — 
streptococcus  ;  or  united  together  by  a  sort  of  homogeneous  material 
— zoogleaform.  AVhcn  in  this  condition  they  are  young  and  in  pro- 
cess of  active  proliferation.  Sometimes  they  form  a  coating  upon 
the  surface  of  liquids.  "When  we  speak  of  a  raycoderma,  they  have 
6 


82  THE  DISEASES  OF   DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

no  independent  movements,  but  simply  display  the  well-known  mo- 
lecular trepidation. 

The  function  of  spherical  bacteria  has  been  determined  to  be 
zymotic  ;  that  is,  ferment-producing.  According  to  Cohn,  they  do 
not  take  part  in  the  production  of  putrefying  processes. 

While  the  above  includes  a  distinct  form  of  germ-life,  there  is 
no  question  that  the  spores  of  some  other  forms  of  germ-life,  viz., 
bacillus,  give  no  distinguishing  means  by  which  to  separate  them 
from  spherobacteria,  except  the  results  of  experimental  cultivation ; 
as  the  Bible  says  of  men,  "  By  their  fruits  shall  ye  know  them." 

There  is  but  one  genus  of  the  spherobacteria,  viz.,  "  micrococcus." 
They  are  described  as  cells,  colorless  or  scarcely  colored,  very  small, 
globular  or  oval,  forming  by  transverse  division,  filaments  of  two  or 
several  articulations  in  the  form  of  a  chaplet,  or  united  in  numerous 
cellular  families,  or  in  glutinous  masses,  all  motionless.  This  genus 
is  divided  into  three  groups  : 

Micrococcus  chromogenes. 

Micrococcus  zymogenes. 

Micrococcus  pathogenes.  ^ 

The  first  groups  are  again  distinguished  as  to  the  solubility  or 
insolubility  of  the  coloring-matter,  and  are  found  upon  vegetables, 
milk,  etc. 

The  second  group  contains  but  one  variety  of  special  interest  to 
us,  viz.,  M.  urece,  found  in  urine,  where  it  transforms  the  urea  into 
carbonate  of  ammonia  (Pasteur). 

The  pathogenetic  micrococci  are  of  so  much  more  importance 
that  we  must  give  them  particular  attention. 

They  are  spherical  bacteria,  which  are  found  in  affections  of  a 
contagio-infectious  nature,  such  as  3f.  vaccince,  being  very  small, 
appearing  isolated  or  in  pairs  in  recent  vaccine  virus,  and  in  the 
pus  of  variola-pustules.  They  are  looked  upon  as  the  active  prin- 
ciple of  vaccine  virus. 

M.  dijpMheriiicws. — Granular  ovoid  cells,  isolated,  or  more  fre- 
quently united  in  pairs,  or  in  a  chaplet  of  four  to  six  cells,  some- 
times multiplying  in  colonies,  and  extending  themselves  in  all  the 
complicated  tissues,  decomposing  and  destroying  them. 

M.  septicus. — Little  round,  motionless  cells,  crowded  in  masses 
or  united  in  chaplets ;  found  in  the  secretions  of  wounds  in  cases  of 
septicsemia,  as  zooglsea  in  callous  ulcers,  as  isolated  cells,  united  in 
pairs ^  or  chaplets,  in  tTie  serum  of  epidemic  puerperal  fever,  and 
in  all  tissues,  vessels,  etc.,  in  pyaemia  and  septicemia. 

Many  others  have  been  found  and  given  specific  names,  espe- 


INFECTION.  83 

cially  by  Ilallicr,  Zurn,  etc.,  as   in  Bcurlatiiia,  epidemic  diarrhoia, 
typhus,  glanders,  rinderpest,  syphilis,  gonorrhoea. 

II.  The  Skcond  Group  of  Conx,  the  Micuouacteuia. — "We  have 
here  the  single  genus  bacterium.  Cells  cylindrical  or  elliptical, 
free,  or  united  in  paire  during  their  division,  rarely  in  fours,  never 
in  chains,  sometimes  in  zoogUea,  having  spontaneous  movement,  os- 
cillatory and  very  active,  especially  in  media  rich  in  alimentary 
material  and  in  the  presence  of  oxygen. 

As  with  the  spherobacteria,  we  might  divide  the  rod-bacteria 
into  three  groups:  first,  those  of  putrefaction,  J3.  termo^  llneola ^ 
second,  those  of  lactic  acetic  fermentation ;  third,  the  pigment-bac- 
teria of  colored  milk  and  pus. 

J3.  tenno  is  the  most  common  of  all  varieties.  They  are  cylin- 
drical cells,  slightly  swollen  in  the  middle,  isolated,  sometimes  united 
in  ])airs,  two  to  five  times  as  long  as  wide.     Movements  oscillatory. 

They  can  easily  be  produced  in  all  infusions  of  animal  and  vege- 
table substances.  Tliis  bacterium  is  said  to  have  cilia  or  hair-like 
projections  from  each  end  of  the  rod. 

It  is  the  veritable  agent  and  first  cause  of  putrefaction,  and 
hence  is  to  be  found  in  all  cadavers  where  this  process  has  com- 
menced. 

B.  Ihuola  is  larger  and  found  in  various  animal  and  vegetable 
infusions,  but  is  not  definitely  known  to  cause  a  specific  fermenta- 
tion. 

The  other  forms  of  lactic  and  acetic  fermentation  are  not  of  es- 
pecial pathogenetic  interest. 

III.  Desmobactekia. — This  group  of  Colin^s  is  of  especial  inter- 
est, as  it  contains  the  specific  germ  of  anthrax,  that  germ  upon  which 
the  germ-infection  theor}-  of  disease  largely  depends  for  support. 

They  are  filiform  bacteria,  composed  of  elongated  articulations, 
isolated,  or  in  chains  more  or  less  extended,  and  resulting  from  trans- 
verse division.  (In  this  form  they  correspond  to  leptothrix,  but 
differ  from  torula  in  that  the  filaments  are  not  constricted  at  the 
point  of  articulation.)  They  may  be  motionless  or  not,  dependent 
upon  the  presence  or  absence  of  oxygen,  the  reaction  of  the  medium 
which  contains  them,  and  other  unknown  conditions.  Some  forms 
never  exhibit  movement. 

AVe  have  here  but  one  germ  to  consider — bacillus. 

The  bacilli,  are  characterized  as  slender  filament><,  straight,  short, 
or  of  moderate  length,  rigid  or  flexible,  and  as  being  with  and  with- 
out movement.     One  species  is  a  pigment  bacteria. 

Bacillus  stihtilis. — Very  slender  elongated  filaments  formed  of  a 


34  THE   DISEASES   OF  DOMESTIC  AKIMALS. 

single  cell,  or  of  two,  three,  or  more  segments.  Thickness  un- 
measurable  ;  well-defined  flexible  movement  of  an  active  or  passive 
character.  Reproduction  is  by  fission  and  by  globular  or  oval 
spores,  which  develop  in  the  interior  of  the  articulations.  They 
are  to  be  found  in  stagnant  waters. 

This  bacillus  plays  an  important  part  in  butyric  fermentation. 
It  exists  in  rennet,  and  can  support  a  temperature  of  105"  C.  and 
live  in  a  medium  deprived  of  pure  oxj'gen,  in  which  case  it  takes  a 
peculiar  form  and  contains  persistent  spores  which  when  set  free 
give  rise  to  other  rods. 

Bacillus  anthracis  is  a  species  very  similar  to  the  preceding,  but 
generally  longer,  and  always  motionless  ;  length  four,  twelve,  and 
even  fifty  micrometers  ;  thickness  scarcely  measurable. 

Bacillus  anthracis  is  developed  in  charbon — carbuncle — of  cattle, 
man,  sheep,  horse,  rabbit,  rat,  etc.  ;  never  in  dogs,  the  cat,  birds,  and 
cold-blooded  animals.  It  is  found,  above  all,  in  the  capillary  vessels. 
When  cultivated  in  suitable  media,  such  as  the  aqueous  humor  of 
the  eye  of  the  ox,  and  the  different  cultivation  fluids,  this  bacillus 
develops  spores  in  the  interior  of  its  segments  which  may  germinate 
and  develop  rods. 

The  other  bacilli  of  this  group  are  without  any  special  interest. 

The  only  form  of  special  interest  is  the  "  spirochaeton  hermeieri," 
found  in  the  blood  of  persons  suffering  from  recurrent  fever  (chills 
and  fever),  but  only  during  the  access,  never  during  the  intermis- 
sions of  the  disease. 

Distinction  of  Bacteria  fkom  Inorganic  Substances. 

'No  one  has  ever  questioned  the  living  nature  of  bacteria,  except 
with  reference  to  the  most  invisible  varieties.  These  smaller  forms 
may  be  often  confounded  with  vario-us  matters,  such  as  organic  par- 
ticles, molecular  granules,  fat-globules,  or  fatty  detritus.  To  distin- 
guish them  from  micrococci  is  almost  impossible,  unless  the  greatest 
circumspection  is  taken  by  the  observer. 

The  detritus,  or  the  amorphous  powder,  or  precipitated  mole- 
cules, of  inorganic  substances,  though  they  equally  well  exhibit  the 
noted  Brownian  movement,  are  to  be  distinguished  from  micrococci 
by  such  optical  signs  as  their  angular  or  irregular  form,  their  lesser 
refraction,  and  their  action  toward  certain  chemical  agents. 

The  case  is  quite  different  if  the  molecules  are  of  an  organic 
nature.  They  enjoy,  in  common  with  micrococci,  a  round  form, 
movement,  and  refraction.  However,  their  form  is  wanting  in  the 
regularity  proper  to  germs  ;  they  vary  in  color,  and  their  refractive 


INFECTION.  35 

power  is  always  less.  "Warming  the  slides,  the  action  of  ether  and 
other  known  reagents  will  enable  one  to  distinguish  them. 

The  must  ditKt-ult  of  all  objects  to  distinguish  from  micrococci 
are  fat-globules,  or  so-called  fatty  iletrUus.  The  difference  in  refrac- 
tion is  very  small,  and  in  mucilaginous  solutions  the  action  of  re- 
agents is  not  always  to  be  depended  upon.  Cultivation  is  the  only 
secure  course  to  employ  in  cases  of  grave  doubt. 

Only  ,such  (jlubuU's  as  have  iJie  power  of  multlpllcaiion  are  vital 
hodif^  :  when  this  does  not  take  place,  we  may  assure  ourselves  that 
we  are  having  to  do  with  some  form  of  pseudobacteria. 

Xiigeli  says  there  are  but  three  diagnostic  signs  by  which  we 
are  enabled  to  recognize,  to  any  degree  of  certainty,  that  molecules 
under  our  observation  are  organisms — spontaneous  movement,  pro- 
liferation, and  equality  in  dimensions,  united  with  regularity  of 
form. 

The  most  certain  characteristic  is  movement  in  a  straight  or 
curved  line — a  phenomenon  never  to  be  seen  in  inorganic  mole- 
cules. 

Multiplication  is  a  character  of  less  importance,  because  of  the 
liability  to  adhesion  of  inorganic  or  other  molecules.  '  Granules,  of 
varying  size  and  of  a  more  or  less  irregular  form,  ought  not  to  be 
considered  as  belonging  to  the  segmented  fungi. 

As  to  chemical  reagents,  concentrated  acetic  acid,  which  causes 
all  animal  tissues  to  clarify,  is  without  influence  on  bacteria.  Many 
coloring-stuffs  used  in  microscopic  technics  are  of  assistance  in  diag- 
nosing bacteria  ;  among  the  best  of  these  are  hamatoxylin,  fuch- 
sine,  and  Bismarck  brown. 

The  Development  of  Bacteria. 

Of  all  living  organisms  known  to  natural  science  the  bacteria 
are  the  most  widely  dispersed  :  they  jnay,  in  fact,  be  said  to  be 
ever}'where — in  the  air,  water,  upon  and  in  solid  animal  and  vege- 
table bodies. 

OuiGiN. — The  origin  of  all  inferior  organisms  has  ever  been  a 
question  open  to  most  variable  and  vital  discussion  ;  but,  in  general, 
three  ways  have  been  assumed  for  this  most  imj)ortant  function: 

1.  By  heterogenesis  ;  that  is,  by  direct  production  from  mineral 
or  organic  substances  (spontaneous  generation). 

2.  On  the  rule  that  ''like  bejrets  like''  it  has  been  asserted  that 
all  bacteria  must  come  from  others  of  the  same  kind,  by  one  of  the 
recognized  forms  of  generation  :  fission,  spores,  etc. 

3.  Others    assume  that,  while  they  derive   their   origin    from 


86  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  AXIMALS. 

organisms  abeadj  in  existence,  tliej  represent  notliing  more  than 
dijfferent  stages  or  forms  of  development  of  known  species.  This 
latter  hypothesis  is  known  as  polymorphism. 

The  Dissemination  of  Bacteria  in  Ditfekent  Media — Air  and 

Water. 

The  experiments  of  Pasteur,  T\Tidall,  and  others,  have  clearly 
demonstrated  the  presence  of  vegetable  germs  in  the  air  which  has 
been  allowed  to  pass  through  apertures  into  vessels  prepared  for  the 
purpose.  These  germs  generally  have  the  micrococcus  or  microbe 
form,  and  are  present  in  lesser  numbers  in  winter  than  in  summer 
and  fall,  which  fact  finds  its  explanation  in  the  greater  degree  of 
vegetable  decomposition  and  telluric  evaporation  which  takes  place 
during  the  warm  months  in  comparison  with  the  cold. 

The  experiments  of  Cohn  and  others  have  demonstrated  that  the 
atmosphere  contains  very  few  adult  bacteria  ;  in  fact,  they  are  rarely 
found  therein  in  a  complete  state,  but  rather  as  bright,  refracting 
points,  very  difficult  if  not  impossible  to  distinguish  from  one  another. 
These  points  probably  represent  the  latent  or  permanent  spore-con- 
dition of  bacterium  life,  capable  of  generating  into  tnie  bacteria 
under  favorable  conditions.  These  spores  may  form  the  point  from 
which  epidemics  take  their  origin,  and  in  this  condition  are  capable 
of  wide  dispersion. 

Nutrition  and  Respiration  of  Bacteria. 

As  bacteria  have  some  of  the  essential  characteristics  of  organ- 
ized beings — a  cell-membrane  and  protoplasmic  contents — they  must 
naturally  receive  nourishment  and  respire  in  the  same  way  as  all 
colorless  -vegetables  and  inferior  animals  which  have  no  special 
apparatus  for  such  purposes  ;  that  is,  by  endosmotic  absorption. 

It  matters  not  in  what  medium  they  may  be  met  with,  they  re- 
quire— in  order  to  live — water,  nitrogen,  carbon,  and  oxygen,  as  well 
as  certain  salts  from  the  mineral  world,  which  enter  in  very  minute 
quantities  into  their  organism. 

Water  is  indispensable  to  the  activity  and  development  of  bac- 
teria. Desiccation,  drying  out,  completely  arrests  the  movement  of 
those  that  are  mobile,  and  the  functional  activity  of  all  bacteria. 
Desiccation  does  not,  however,  killthem,  unless  it  is  too  prolonged, 
as  is  proved  by  the  activity  retained  by  the  various  kinds  of  virus 
used  for  inoculation.  In  the  condition  of  permanent  spores  they 
retain  their  vitality  a  long  while.  It  is  a  surprising  fact  that  the 
great  chemical  difference  existing  between   salt   and  fresh  water 


INFECTION.  S7 

appears  to  exert  little  or  no  influence  upon  the  development  of  bac- 
teria. 

NiTitoGKx. — The  experiments  of  Pasteur  have  demonstrated  that 
an  albuminoid  nitrogenous  substance  is  nut  necessary  to  the  life  of 
bacteria,  but  that  other  nitrogenous  substances,  as  ammonia,  will 
answer  the  same  purposes. 

Pasteur's  cultivating  solution  is  as  follows  : 

Distilled  water 100  parts. 

Sujrar-onndy 10     " 

Tartrate  of  ammonia 1     '* 

Ashes  of  one  gramme  of  yeast 0075. 

Cohn's  fluid  is  designed  to  counteract  the  development  of  mold 
due  to  the  cane-sugar  in  the  above  solution,  and  is  as  follows : 

Distilled  water 100  parta. 

Tartrate  of  ammonia 1     " 

Ashes  of  yeast 1     " 

Mayer  gives  us  another  fluid  which  does  away  M-ith  the  ashes  of 
yeast,  viz. : 

Phospliate  of  potash 0-1  gramme. 

Sulphate  of  magnesia 0*1         " 

Tribasic  phosphate  of  lime 0*1         '' 

Distilled  water 20  c.  c. 

Carbon. — Aside  from  other  sources,  bacteria  can  obtain  this  im- 
portant element  to  their  life  from  organic  acids. 

Oxygen.— ^Numerous  controversies  have  taken  place  among  sa- 
vants as  to  the  7'6le  tliis  element  plays  in  bacterial  life. 

It  seems,  a  priori^  that,  like  other  living  things,  oxygen  must  be 
necessary  to  germ-life.  Pasteur  has  demonstrated  tliat  it  is  not  so, 
however,  with  all  forms  of  bacteria.  In  putrefying  processes  lie  has 
demonstrated  that,  after  certain  species  have  developed  />*.  termo.^ 
which  depend  upon  the  presence  of  oxygen,  and  come  to  the  surface, 
forming  a  coating  upon  it,  the  fluid  beneath  is  free  from  this  gas, 
and  yet  other  forms  of  bacteria  come  to  develo})nient  in  it. 

The  first  of  these  organisms — that  is,  tliose  dependent  on  oxygen 
for  life — he  has  styled  aerobic  fungi,  and  the  others  anaerobic. 
Other  observers  do  not  agree  with  this  theory.  Hoffmann,  a  very 
able  German  savant^  says :  "  These  little  beings  can  not  live  without 
air — that  is,  without  oxygen.  If  this  gas  is  wanting,  tliey  cease  to 
move  and  to  proliferate.      If  a  drop  of  liquid  full  of  bacteria  is 


88  THE  DISEASES   OF   DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

placed  upon  a  glass  slide  and  covered,  the  active  bacteria  will  all 
gradually  approach  the  margin  of  the  cover,  and  at  the  end  of  sev- 
eral days  will  be  found  ah've,  while  those  situated  toward  the  center 
will  be  dead." 

Toussaint,  the  ablest  veterinary  student  of  this  subject,  has  re- 
cently published  the  following  results  with  reference  to  B.  anthracis : 

"  The  bacteria  which  occupy  the  central  portion  of  Kanvier's 
moist  chamber,  and  which  by  reason  of  their  situation  receive  very 
little  oxygen  from  the  groove,  are  soon  arrested  in  their  develop- 
ment, while  those  which  occupy  the  borders  are  long  and  collect  in 
immense  numbers.  Those  in  the  center  remain  small,  formed  of 
two,  four,  or  five  articulations,  which  are  easily  separated.  They 
soon  cease  to  grow,  and  are  not  transformed  into  spores." 

Cohn,  an  unquestionable  authority,  also  says  that  "the  com- 
plete development  of  bacillus,  and,  above  all,  the  generation  of 
spores,  only  take  place  under  the  free  access  of  air." 

Reproduction  of  Bacteria. 

"We  have  already  mentioned  that  bacteria  reproduce  either  by 
scissiparity — fission — or  by  the  endogenous  production  of  spores, 
which  are  again  capable  of  developing  into  bacteria.  We  have 
also  frequently  mentioned  that  these  spores  are  so  wanting  in 
specific  characteristics  that  it  is  impossible  to  assert  whether  each 
variety  of  bacteria  has  its  own  specific  spore  or  germinal  form, 
although  this  theory  is  mostly  supported  ;  while  able  authors  also 
hold  to  a  metagenetic  theory — that  is,  that  a  metamorphosis  be- 
tween the  different  forms  of  fungi  is  possible,  the  same  being  due 
to  the  influence  of  the  different  media  in  which  they  may  be  culti- 
vated or  live. 

When  proliferation  takes  place  by  fission,  or  transverse  division 
of  the  cell,  we  see  the  cell  gradually  yet  rapidly  increases  in  length, 
the  protoplasma  in  the  middle  becoming  clearer,  and  a  partition 
forms  in  the  middle  of  the  cell,  separating  the  protoplasma  into  two 
distinct  portions.  The  partition  is  at  first  very  delicate,  but  soon 
thickens,  and  the  cell  divides  in  two. 

This  phenomenon  takes  place  more  or  less  rapidly,  dependent 
upon  the  richness  in  nutritive  material  of  the  media  in  which  it  is, 
on  the  temperature,  moisture,  etc. 

In  some  cases  a  constriction  takes  place  in  the  middle  of  the 
cell,  the  two  ends  having  a  figure-8  or  bulb-like  form. 


INFECTION.  89 

Reproduction  by  Spores. 

Until  recently  multiplication  l)y  fission  "vvas  the  only  form  of 
bacterial  reproduction  admitted  by  naturalists. 

The  formation  of  spores  has  been  observed  in  bacillus  subtilis 
(Cohn),  bacillus  anthracis  (Koch),  and  in  bacillus  amylubacter  by 
another  ohserver. 

In  cultivation  experiments  nuide  with  hay-infusion  we  may  see, 
at  a  certain  moment,  in  the  homogeneous  filaments  of  the  bacilli, 
very  refractive  corpuscles  making  their  appearance.  Each  of  these 
corpuscles  becomes  a  spore,  oblong,  or  in  the  form  of  a  short  fila- 
ment, highly  refractive,  and  having  well-defined  outlines.  "We  find 
the  spores  arranged  in  a  simple  series  in  the  filaments.  So  soon  as 
the  formation  of  spores  has  terminated,  the  filaments  can  no  longer 
be  distinguished,  and  one  would  say  that  the  spores  were  com- 
pletely free  in  the  mucus;  but  their  linear  arrangement  shows  that 
they  are  produced  in  the  interior  of  the  filaments.  These  dissolve 
slowly,  and  the  spores,  being  reduced  to  a  fine  powder,  settle  to  the 
bottom  of  the  liquid,  where  they  may  be  found  in  great  (piantity. 

The  germination  of  spores  does  not  apparently  follow  in  the 
same  medium;  but,  if  we  remove  them  to  a  new  cultivating  fluid, 
we  may  observe  the  spore  to  swell  up  and  elongate,  resembling  a 
bacterium  with  a  head.  Soon  the  head,  the  most  refractive  portion 
of  the  object,  disappears,  and  the  tube  stretches  into  a  short  rod- 
bacillus,  commences  to  display  motion,  and  becomes  jointed  by 
transverse  division. 

The   Action  of  Bacterlv  witu  Reference  to  Contagious   and 
Virulent  Diseases. 

One  of  the  peculiarities  of  all  life  is  the  struggle  for  existence. 
Both  animal  and  vegetable  life  is  encompassed  by  this  fact.  Indi- 
viduals of  the  same  kind  and  those  of  a  different  kind  all  live  at  the 
expense  of  one  another.     Many  perish  in  the  conflict. 

Life  is  a  constant  struggle  with  death.  Even  the  individual 
cells  of  which  the  organs  of  our  body  are  composed  undergo  this 
constant  struggle ;  the  stronger  overcome  the  weaker.  So  it  is 
with  disease. 

The  germs  of  infectious  diseases  on  entering  the  animal  organism 
at  once  begin  a  conflict  with  the  elements  of  the  same  for  nutritious 
material.  If  the  elements  of  our  bodies  are  the  stronger,  they 
finally  overpower  these  disease-producing  enemies,  and  we  live ;  if 
the  latter  are  the  more  powerful,  we  die. 


90  THE   DISEASES   OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

While  many  forms  of  fungus-life  are  known  to  have  an  eco- 
nomical value,  which  we  make  practical  use  of  in  the  production  of 
wine,  beer,  vinegar,  yeast,  etc.,  it  is  still  more  important  to  us,  and  of 
no  less  practical  value,  that  we  should  know  the  nature  of  the  action 
of  those  which  produce  disease,  either  in  ourselves  or  in  our  domes- 
tic animals.  In  both  instances  we  have  to  do  with  questions  of 
natural  economy,  though  the  directions  in  which  we  pursue  our  in- 
vestigations are  so  manifestly  different. 

While  much  has  been  written  upon  the  action  of  bacteria  as  re- 
gards their  etiological  relation  to  disease,  still  we  are  forced  to  admit 
that  the  subject  is  yet  buried  in  the  greatest  obscurity.  We  find  it 
a  hard  task  to  distinguish  the  essential  from  the  unessential  in  our 
studies. 

The  task  we  have  before  us  is,  then,  to  discuss  the  role  which 
bacteria  play  in  the  generation  of  disease  in  the  animal  kingdom. 

The  diseases  w^iich  have  been  attributed  to  germinal  action  are 
very  numerous ;  in  fact,  the  list  includes  all  the  infectious  and  con- 
tagious diseases,  and  many  of  a  questionable  character.  Some  en- 
thusiasts (Hallier,  Zurn,  and  others)  have  even  professed  to  discover 
the  specific  germ  in  every  case,  and  we  have  in  their  writings  most 
explicit  descriptions  of  the  peculiar  fungi  of  glanders,  cholera,  hay- 
fever,  rinderpest,  and  numerous  other  diseases,  observations  which 
the  most  exact  experiments  of  other  equally  proficient  authorities 
have  failed  to  confirm. 

While  our  knowledge  of  specific  disease-producing  bacteria  is 
thus  limited,  we  can  safely  assert  that,  with  increasing  years  and 
consequent  improvement  in  the  means  and  methods  of  investiga- 
tion, it  will  be  constantly  extended  and  augmented. 

It  is  well  known  that  there  are  forms  of  fungus-life  which  live 
upon  plants.  A  peculiar  fungus — ustilago  maidis — is  the  specific 
cause  of  the  rust  of  grain.  It  is  also  known  that  during  one  period 
or  form  of  its  existence,  this  fungus  lives  upon  the  leaves  of  the 
barberry-bush  ;  and  practical  experience,  based  on  this  knowledge, 
has  proved  that  with  the  removal  of  these  bushes  in  certain  districts 
the  sequential  disease  of  corn  has  ceased  to  appear. 

A  very  important  question  is,  Are  the  infectious  elements  of 
disease  of  a  gaseous  nature,  or  are  they  organisms  ? 

We  know  from  experimental  experience  that  a  very  small  quan- 
tity of  infectious  material  is  necessary  to  produce  certain  diseases. 
We  also  know  that,  when  in  case  of  a  certain  disease  (anthrax)  we 
introduce  the  smallest  quantity  of  material  into  the  organism,  a  mul- 
tiplication of  this  material  takes  place. 


INFECTION.  91 

We  know  that  the  disease-producing  germs  arc  capable  of  suspen- 
sion in  the  air,  thereby  impregnating  it  with  tlie  property  of  infection. 

If  we  phiee  healthy  cattle  in  the  same  stable  with  others  afflicted 
with  contagions  plenro-pneumonia,  we  know  that  they  will  probably 
ac(piire  that  disease,  even  though  none  of  the  healthy  may  be  placed 
in  direct  relation  with  the  diseased  ones.  The  same  has  often  been 
found  to  result  when  healthy  cattle  were  placed  in  a  stable  where 
the  disease  had  been,  and  the  sick  and  all  others  in  it  at  the  time 
had  been  removed  and  some  attempts  at  disinfection  taken  place. 
I  shall  relate  circumstances  which  will  sufficiently  prove  that  cattle 
in  the  same  stable  with  others  having  tuberculosis  have  acquired 
the  disease,  and  that  by  means  of  the  aspired  air. 

Of  our  own  species  we  know  that  it  is  only  necessary  for  a  sus- 
ceptible pei*son  to  be  in  a  room  for  a  few  moments  with  an  indi- 
vidual afHicted  with  the  measles,  scarlatina,  variola,  exanthematous 
typhus,  to  acquire  these  diseases,  or  to  live  for  a  short  time  in  a  cer- 
tain malarial  district,  to  acquire  either  the  yellow  fever  or  intermit- 
tent fever. 

These  examples  sufficiently  demonstrate  the  infectious  nature  of 
the  atmosphere  at  certain  times  and  in  certain  localities.  While 
this  is  a  fact,  still  the  most  contradictory  views  are  entertained,  both 
by  the  medical  profession  and  the  public,  as  to  the  real  nature  of 
the  infectious  elements.  "We  find  our  medical  writings  constantlj'^ 
mentioning  "  volatile  contagiums,"  or  "  gaseous  miasmas  " — things 
which  do  not  exist,  and  are  entirely  in  contradiction  with  the  results 
of  modern  research. 

AVe  can  speak  of  the  infectious  elements  as  fixed,  or  movable ; 
that  is,  such  as  nuist  be  attached  to  some  vehicle,  be  it  a  living  or- 
ganism or  something  polluted  with  the  excretions  of  the  same,  or 
such  as  are  easily  taken  up  by  the  air  and  transported  to  some  dis- 
tance from  the  place  of  generation.  But  neither  of  these  definitions 
corresponds  to  our  ideas  of  a  gas. 

A  poisonous  gas  when  suspended  in  the  air  is  more  or  less 
widely  dispersed,  and  soon  loses  its  activity.  If  it  enters  the  body, 
it  must  enter  in  certain  quantities,  or  no  evil  action  follows.  We 
know  of  no  means  by  which  it  can  multiply  itself  within  an  organ- 
ism. On  account  of  their  liability  to  disjn'rsion,  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible for  an  organism  to  inhale  enough  of  a  poisonous  gas  to  cause 
serious  disturbance  in  the  open  air.  The  gas  and  person  must  be 
confined  in  a  room,  and  a  given  quantity  inhaled,  before  evil  con- 
sequences result.  Even  though  a  person  may  inhale  a  considerable 
quantity  of  such  gas,  removal  from  it  soon  relieves  its  effects. 


92  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

As  many  of  you  may  have  read,  in  tlie  Catacombs  of  Rome  and 
other  such  places  carbonic- acid  gas  is  generally  very  abundant  in 
the  lower  strata  of  air  in  the  passages,  and  while  it  is  impossible  for 
dogs  or  cats  to  follow  their  owners  in  such  places,  yet  the  latter, 
on  account  of  the  greater  elevation  of  their  respiratory  apparatus, 
can  walk  along  in  perfect  safety.  We  know  also  how  quickly  un- 
pleasant odors  are  dispersed  by  the  atmosphere. 

A  poisonous  gas  must  be  very  soon  so  dispersed  as  to  lose  its 
specific  characteristics. 

Were  the  generation  of  cholera  dependent  on  infectious  gases, 
we  should  find  it  rapidly  extending  over  every  part  of  a  city  or  dis- 
trict, instead  of  being  confined,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  to  certain 
streets  or  districts.  So  in  the  case  of  rinderpest.  If  the  infectious 
elements  were  of  a  gaseous  nature,  our  endeavors  at  stamping  out 
would  be  utterly  futile ;  yet  we  know  we  can  frequently  confine  it 
to  a  single  stable  in  a  village  where  many  cattle  are  kept.  Were 
the  infectious  elements  gases,  all  individuals  with  any  disposition 
to  infection  would  contract  given  diseases,  as  they  would  be  far 
more  likely  to  take  up  a  correspondingly  equal  amount  of  infectious 
material  than  if  they  were  of  an  organized  nature. 

Again,  if  they  were  gases,  the  infectious  elements  would  soon  be 
so  widely  dispersed  as  to  lose  their  activity. 

While  we  know  the  minuteness  of  many  forms  of  bacterial  life, 
so  minute  that  our  strongest  powers  give  us  but  the  most  inadequate 
idea  of  their  nature,  may  we  not  safely  assume  that  there  are  many 
forms  which  still  escape  our  observation  ? 

Are  the  elements  of  infection  formless,  or  are  they  organic  in- 
dividuals— that  is,  objects  having  form  and  life  ? 

We  have  two  possibilities  to  consider :  either  they  enter  an  or- 
ganism in  such  quantities  as  to  cause  immediate  action,  or  they 
enter  in  very  small  quantity,  and  have  the  power  of  multiplying 
within  the  organism. 

By  poisoning  the  first  takes  place.  A  given  quantity  of  a  known 
poison  causes  direct  and  specific  action.  This  never  takes  place  by 
infection. 

Specific  poisons  have  no  period  of  latency. 

The  most  poisonous  of  substances  act  only  in  this  manner.  Minus 
a  given  quantity,  no  poisonous  action,  though  we  may  have  what  is 
known  as  a  physiological  or  medicinal  action  which  we  make  use  of 
in  many  of  them.  If  we  carry  these  medicinal  doses  beyond  a  cer- 
tain limit,  a  poisonous  action  frequently  results,  which  is  known  as 
the  cumulative  action  of  drugs — as  with  strychnine. 


INFECTION.  93 

While  a  given,  appreciable  quantity  of  poison  is  necessary  to 
specific  action,  we  find  in  infectious  diseases  the  contrary  to  be  the 
case.  We  can  not  appreciate  the  niinutcnc.-is  of  the  quantity  of  in- 
fectious element  necessary  to  produce  an  infectious  disease. 

A  single  bacterium,  in  a  condition  of  active  proliferation,  can  lead 
to  the  development  of  anthrax,  if  inoculated  into  a  susceptible  or- 
gimism. 

Who  would  have  temerity  enough  to  introduce  under  his  skin 
even  the  smallest  part  of  the  point  of  the  finest  needle  which  had 
been  di[)ped  in  the  saliva  of  a  rabid  dog?  Yet  we  can  neither  Aveigh 
nor  otherwise  appreciate  the  quantity  of  the  inficieus  introduced. 

You  need  no  further  proof  of  the  impossibility  of  unformed 
elements  causing  infection.  Unformed  elements  have  not  the  power 
of  self-multiplication. 

We  are,  then,  naturally  driven  to  the  assumption  of  organized 
elements,  as  the  etiological  momenta  in  infection. 

The  elements  of  infection  must  have  the  faculty  of  multiplica- 
tion. They  must  have  the  faculty  of  taking  up  soluble  nutriment 
from  their  surroundings. 

What,  then,  must  be  the  real  nature  of  these  elements?  Our 
studies  and  experiments  have  clearly  shown  that,  of  all  organic  life, 
but  one  form  has  the  characteristics  which  conform  to  these  con- 
ditions. That  is  the  bacteria ;  or,  more  particularly,  the  schizomy- 
cetes,  or  fission,  spore-producing  fungi. 

These  fungi  correspond  in  every  particular  with  our  theories. 
They  are  small  enough  to  be  taken  up  in  numbers,  under  favorable 
conditions,  and  widely  dispersed  by  the  atmospheric  currents.  They 
possess  the  ability  to  multiply  to  an  incredible  degree,  doubling  their 
numbers,  under  suitable  conditions,  in  a  few  minutes.  Their  te- 
nacity of  life  exceeds  that  of  any  known  objects. 

AVhile  the  essential  characteristics  of  the  bacteria  in  question  so 
fully  conform  to  our  hypothesis,  our  practical  experiences  are  not  so 
full  of  assurance. 

AVhile,  in  some  few  diseases — diphtheria,  intermittent  fever,  an- 
thrax, and  emphysema  infectiosum — we  find  the  fission-fungi  or 
sj>ores  present  in  great  numbers,  in  other  hypothetic  germ-diseases 
they  are  frequently  wanting,  or  very  seldom  met  with. 

AVhile  we  must  admit  the  meagerness  of  our  knowledge  as  to 
the  manner  of  life  of  these  bacterin,  yet  we  may  a.isume  that  their 
deleterious  action  extends  itself  in  three  directions. 

While  the  infectious  elements  act  in  the  smallest  quantities  in 
the  purely  contagious  diseases,  when  introduced  into  a  suitable  or- 


94  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

ganism,  experience  seems  to  justify  us  in  assuming  that  much  greater 
quantities  are  necessary  with  regard  to  the  so-called  malarial  diseases. 

Miasmas  are  not  transportable  in  the  sense  of  the  infectious  ele- 
ments of  purely  contagious  diseases. 

We  can  not  acquire  intermittent  fever  at  any  time  or  place,  but 
must  be  in  localities  where  it  is  generated. 

In  septic  diseases,  we  have,  fortunately,  still  another  condition. 

The  continued  introduction  of  infectious  material  is  necessary  to 
produce  septictemia ;  for  experience  has  taught  us  that  if,  by  disin- 
fection of  the  wound,  we  can  shut  off  the  supplj',  even  though  the 
wound  continues,  we  may  prevent  the  general  disease.  We  know, 
further,  that  we  can  introduce,  subcutaneously,  no  inconsiderable 
amount  of  septic  material  into  a  rabbit,  without  causing  fatal  re- 
sults ;  but,  if  we  continue  the  supply,  the  general  disease,  blood- 
poisoning,  follows. 

We  do  not  know  why  it  is  that  one  individual  of  a  given  species 
is  susceptible  to  infection  by  a  contagious  disease,  and  another  not ; 
or  why  at  one  time  an  individual  may  become  infected  and  at  an- 
other not ;  or  why  at  one  time  we  may  go  to  a  locality  where  inter- 
mittent fever  or  yellow  fever  prevails  and  not  become  diseased,  while 
at  another  time  we  may  acquire  either  of  them. 

In  fact,  when  we  come  to  the  earnest  study  of  the  causes  of  con- 
tagious infections,  as  well  as  malarial  diseases,  we  become  more  and 
more  convinced  that  our  ignorance  far  surpasses  any  knowledge  that 
we  may  possess. 

Dispersion  of  Bacteria,  and  their  Entrance  into  the  Anenial 

Organism. 

The  deeper  we  seek  to  penetrate  into  the  life  and  functions  of 
the  bacteria,  the  more  do  we  feel  ourselves  as  lost  wanderers  upon 
an  unknown  sea.  We  find  very  few  known  facts  to  cling  to,  as  rocks 
of  refuge  to  the  storm-tossed  mariner.  There  are  but  few  beacon- 
lights  along  this  coast. 

There  are  no  more  important  questions  in  connection  with  bac- 
terial life  than  as  to  the  means  by  which  they  become  separated  and 
dispersed  from  the  original  places  of  generation  ;  and,  again,  how 
they  enter  from  these  into  the  animal  organism. 

Notwithstanding  our  poverty  of  knowledge,  we  have  still  some 
points  of  practical  value  at  command  to  aid  us  on  our  way. 

We  have  ail-sufficiently  established  the  non-gaseous  nature  of 
the  elements  causing  contagio-infectipus  diseases — a  fact  which  will 
become  still  more  apparent  as  we  pursue  our  studies. 


INFECTION.  95 

In  all  strictly  contagions  diseases,  yon  Avill  remember,  the  ele- 
ments of  infection  are  always  generated  witliin  the  diseased  organ- 
ism, and  pass  off  with  the  excretions,  or  are  attached  to  them. 

In  miasmas  they  are  always  generated  ontside  of  any  animal 
organism.     This  distinction  mnst  never  be  lost  sight  of. 

It  is  trne  we  have  infections  diseases,  in  which,  originally,  the 
etiological  elements  are  generated  ontside  the  organism,  and  which 
have  a  certain  degree  of  contagiousness  by  means  of  their  excre- 
tions. This  is  tiie  group  of  infcctio-contagious  diseases  of  which 
febris  tlava  and  anthrax  are  examples. 

AVherever  infectious  germs  are  produced,  their  generation  is 
based  upon  the  2>i'esence  of  moisture,  either  as  a  watery  fluid  or 
some  substance  containing  moisture  sufficient  to  the  purpose. 

We  find  no  difficulty  in  comprehending  the  dispersion  of  infec- 
tious elements  when  they  are  still  contained  within  or  upon  the  ma- 
terials where  they  have  been  generated,  that  is,  by  means  of  streams, 
or  of  solids  or  fluids  impregnated  with  them.  Distribution  or  disper- 
sion of  infectious  stuff  in  this  way  is  by  no  means  the  rule ;  in  fact, 
it  is  seldom  that  it  takes  place  to  any  distance,  unless  artificial  means 
come  into  play.  Glanders,  variola,  and  syphilis  can  only  be  ac- 
quired by  direct  contact  with  an  infected  organism,  or  with  a  vehicle 
which  has  been  polluted  with  the  specific  elements  of  either  of 
these  diseases. 

Only  the  infectious  elements — inficientla — of  purely  contagious 
diseases  are  capable  of  any  wide  dispersion,  and  this  can  only  take 
place  through  the  moving  of  diseased  individuals  or  the  transport 
of  derivatives  from  the  same — clothing,  excretions,  hides,  horns, 
hair,  etc. — or  through  accidental  substances  which  may  have  become 
impregnated  with  excretions  from  them.  Elements  of  infection 
can  only  be  dispersed  in  two  ways : 

1.  By  means  of  water  or  fluids,  or  moist  substances  containing 
them. 

2.  By  the  air,  or  in  some  desiccated  vehicle  or  condition. 
Infectious  elements  do  not  long  retain  their  original  condition 

and  activity  in  water.  The  nature  of  the  nutriment  found  in  such 
media  exerts  a  corresponding  influence  upon  the  nature  and  activi- 
ties of  genns.  Metamorphosis  into  non-malignant  forms  is  fre- 
quently said  to  take  place. 

In  jiure  spring  or  rain  water  they  soon  demonstrate  changes  for 
■want  of  sufficiency  of  nutriment.  They  retain  their  specific  char- 
acteristics longest  in  those  media  in  which  they  are  originally  gen- 
erated. 


96  THE   DISEASES   OF   DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

The  excretions  of  purely  contagious  diseases  conform  more  to 
this  condition  than  external  media ;  but  when  these  are  exposed  to 
the  action  of  an  excess  of  moisture,  decomposition  of  the  media  and 
germinal  changes  soon  follow,  which  are  opposed  to  further  con- 
tagion. 

We  are  justified  in  asserting  that  contagions  which  are  sup- 
ported in  moisture  not  their  natural  media  soon  lose  their  activity. 
Such  disturbance  takes  place  more  rapidly  in  a  warm  than  in  a 
cool  temperature. 

The  more  water  a  given  medium  contains,  the  poorer  its  nutri- 
tious qualities,  and  the  quicker  destruction  or  change  takes  place 
upon  germs  suspended  in  it. 

In  a  frozen  condition  media  as  well  as  germs  suffer  but  little 
change.  Distribution  of  infectious  elements  in  a  desiccated  or  dried 
condition  takes  place  either  by  means  of  the  atmosphere,  or  upon 
the  surface  of  or  within  desiccated  vehicles. 

The  elements  of  infection  retain  their  vitality  longer  in  a  desic- 
cated condition  than  when  in  or  upon  media  of  a  moist  nature,  or 
when  the  desiccation  takes  place  with  sufficient  rapidity  to  prevent 
decomposition  or  changes  in  the  media,  or  the  germs  in  or  upon  it. 

If  the  processes  of  desiccation  take  place  with  such  a  rapidity 
and  to  such  a  degree  as  to  remove  all  moisture,  the  germs  perish. 
Some  degree  of  moisture  is  necessary  to  their  vitality.  Germs  re- 
tain their  activity  longer  in  a  cool,  moist  atmosphere  than  in  a 
warm  and  dry,  and  less  long  when  suspended  in  a  dry  atmosphere 
than  when  contained  in  a  dry  substance,  where  they  are  protected 
in  some  measure  from  further  desiccation.  We  know  that  the 
transportation  of  infectious  elements  to  any  great  distance  by  means 
of  the  atmosphere  does  not  take  place,  but  that  they  may  be  trans- 
ported a  long  distance  by  means  of  diseased  individuals  or  infected 
vehicles.  From  what  has  been  said  you  must  infer  that  infectious 
elements  are  largely  transported  by  means  of  the  air  or  desiccated 
objects,  and  that  these  are  the  chief  sources  whence  to  gain  entrance 
to  the  animal  organism. 

Infectious  elements  must  be  generated  in  media  containing 
moisture.  They  are  not  volatile — gaseous — and  must  first  become 
desiccated  and  reduced  to  powder  before  they  can  be  taken  up  and 
transported  by  the  atmosphere. 

Some  authorities  have  mistakenly  asserted  that  the  germs  are, 
as  it  were,  torn  away  from  their  moist  media  with  the  molecules  of 
water  which  pass  off  with  evaporation.  That  this  is  false  is  proved 
by  the  evaporation  of  salt  water.     The  salts  remain ;  the  volume  is 


INFECTION.  f)7 

less,  but  the  quantity  of  salts  is  the  same.  TVhere  vro  find  salts 
suspended  in  the  air,  there  has  been  sufficient  mechanical  action  not 
to  remove  molecules  of  water,  but  to  take  it  up  in  drops,  as  in  a 
storm  at  sea.  With  the  cessation  of  the  storm  the  salts  drop  of 
their  own  weight ;  but  evaporation  does  not  cease.  JBacteria  can 
not  be  removed  by  simple  processes  of  evaporation ;  small  as  they 
are,  they  are  larger  and  heavier  than  the  molecules  of  salt  dissolved 
in  water.  Infectious  elements  can  only  be  taken  up  and  transported 
by  the  atmosphere  when  in  a  dried  or  dust  form. 

Two  important  adjunct  circumstances  come  also  into  considera- 
tion in  this  regard : 

1.  The  degree  of  adliesion  with  which  such  elements  cling  to 
their  place  of  birth  or  lodgment. 

2.  The  mechanical  means  to  which  they  are  subjected. 

"With  reference  to  the  latter,  the  most  simple  case  is  where  the 
dried  mass,  or  the  remnants  of  an  evaporated  fluid,  are  disturbed  or 
ground  to  a  powder  by  some  mechanical  means  which  renders  it 
easy  for  the  atmosphere  to  remove  them. 

The  formation  of  dust  in  our  streets,  which  may  frequently  con- 
tain bacteria,  and  its  removal  by  the  wind,  is  a  fitting  example. 

To  this  end  it  is  essential  that  the  material  which  contains  the 
germs  does  not  contain  anything  of  a  mucilaginous  or  adhesive 
nature,  and  that  the  particles  of  the  same  are  sufficiently  small. 

The  dissemination  of  a  gas  takes  place  very  rapidly  in  the  at- 
mosphere. Even  though  the  movements  of  the  latter  be  imper- 
ceptible, a  bad-smelling  gas  soon  disajDpears  if  the  supjjly  be  cut 
off. 

The  distribution  of  dust  is  dependent  on  its  fineness  and  the  vio- 
lence or  force  with  which  the  air  moves ;  but  in  no  case  is  it  capa- 
ble of  very  extended  dispersion.  In  a  motionless  atmosphere  dust 
molecules  or  germs  soon  fall  to  the  ground.  The  smaller  tliey  are, 
and  the  more  rapid  the  movement  of  the  air,  the  longer  they  are 
kept  in  suspension. 

So  many  circumstances  are  necessary  to  the  dispersion  of  in- 
fectious elements  by  means  of  the  atmosphere,  it  is  evident  that 
they  may  be  confined  for  a  long  time  to  an  individual,  a  house, 
street,  or  locality. 

An  organism  is,  therefore,  so  much  the  more  exposed  to  a  given 
infection,  the  more  it  is  confined  to  a  locality  where  infectious  ele- 
ments are  or  have  been  generated,  or  the  more  the  air-currents  come 
from  such  a  place. 

Infections  elements  do  not  all  possess  the  same  degree  of  dis- 
1 


98  THE   DISEASES   OF  DOMESTIC   AXIMALS. 

persion ;  so  that,  under  otherwise  similar  cirisumstances,  one  disease 
may  attack  a  far  greater  number  of  individuals  than  another. 

The  Infection  of  the  Animal  Organism. 

Here,  again,  we  find  ourselves  mostly  upon  a  hypothetical  foun- 
dation. 

All  is  not  gold  that  glitters  ;  so  it  will  be  with  many  of  the 
existing  theories  of  fungi-infection ;  but  out  of  all  we  shall  finally 
winnow  many  facts. 

The  penetration  of  germs  into  the  body  by  means  of  an  intact 
outer  cuticle  may  be  looked  upon  as  impossible. 

Whether  they  can  also  penetrate  through  the  mucosa,  and  walls 
of  the  capillaries  of  the  intestinal  or  respiratory  tracts,  is  also  very 
questionable. 

In  anthracis  pulmonum,  a  condition  of  the  lungs  due  to  the  pres- 
ence of  coal-dust  in  the  finest  form,  we  find  it  accumulates  in  the 
alveolae,  but  we  find  no  proof  of  its  gaining  access  to  the  circu- 
lation; the  same  is  true  in  the  so-called  "grinder's  pneumonia," 
which  is  due  to  the  presence  of  stone-dust  in  the  lungs. 

In  the  intestinal  canal  we  know,  from  our  physiological  studies, 
that  even  the  finest  qualities  of  solid  fats  are  incapable  of  absorp- 
tion ;  the  action  of  the  gall  and  pancreatic  fluids  is  first  necessary, 
by  which  they  are  reduced  to  an  emulsion. 

We  are  not,  then,  justified  in  assuming  that  bacteria  gain  access 
to  the  living  organism,  either  on  account  of  their  minuteness,  or  in 
any  passive  way.  Action  on  the  part  of  the  bacteria  themselves 
must  play  no  secondary  part  in  this  phenomenon. 

To  a  passive  entrance,  or  in  fact  to  any  entrance  into  the  living 
organism,  the  respiratory  tract  offers  by  far  the  most  favorable  op- 
portunity. 

As  may  be  known  to  many,  the  capillaries  of  the  lungs  are  of  an 
extremely  delicate  nature  ;  they  also  dip  into  the  alveolae ;  that  large 
number  of  bacteria  are  taken  up  with  the  aspired  air  seems  very 
probable ;  that  very  few,  even  in  a  profusely  impregnated  atmos- 
phere, gain  access  to  the  air-cells  of  the  lungs,  must  be  also  true ; 
for  the  mucosa  of  the  respiratory  tract  extends  from  the  entrance  of 
the  nostrils  to  the  beginning  of  the  inf  undibula,  or  conglomerate  of 
air-cells.  The  alveolae  themselves  have  no  mucosa.  The  viscid 
nature  of  the  covering  of  this  membrane  is  of  such  a  quality  as  to 
warrant  our  assuming  that  the  major  part  of  such  germs  are  caught 
by  it,  and  gradually  find  their  way  back  to  the  pharynx  by  means 
of  the  ciliary  movement  of  the  tracheal  and  bronchial  epithelium. 


INFECTION.  99 

AVe  know  that  the  fission-funyi  liave  a  boring  movement,  and 
that  this  is  apjnirontly  in  a  forward  direction ;  the  question  is,  Is 
it  strong  enongh  to  penetrate  these  tine  capillaries  ? 

The  answer  is,  AVe  do  not  know  ! 

Again,  some  authorities  have  described  openings,  or  vacancies, 
between  the  individual  epithelium  cells  lining  the  alveoli,  and 
have  looked  upon  them  as  the  endings  of  tlie  pulmonary  lymph 
system. 

If  such  stomata  or  openings  really  exist,  they  offer  a  natural 
and  favonible  atrium  to  the  ])enetration  of  bacteria  into  the  system 
by  means  of  the  lungs. 

As  we  have  said,  but  a  very  small  number  can  certainly  pene- 
trate so  deeply  as  the  alveoli ;  but  we  know  that,  on  account  of  the 
wonderful  degree  of  proliferation,  a  very  small  number  is  sufficient 
to  produce  infection. 

The  blood,  from  its  chemical  composition,  and  the  presence  of 
oxygen,  united  with  the  temperature  of  the  body,  offers  the  most 
favorable  condition  for  the  multiplication  of  bacteria. 

As  to  the  intestinal  tract,  we  have  already  said  that  the  nature 
of  the  mucosa  is  such  that  we  do  not  believe  it  possible  for  the  bac- 
teria to  penetrate  its  different  metnbranes. 

The  acidity  of  the  stomach  offer's  very  unfavorable  conditions  to 
the  life  or  multiplication  of  germs. 

Some  have  assumed,  and  among  them  the  ablest  of  mycologists, 
that  an  abrasion  (wounding)  of  an  intact  surface  is  necessary  to  the 
entrance  of  bacteria  into  the  system.  AVhen  we  reflect  on  the  mi- 
nuteness of  these  objects,  and  how  frequently  results  of  this  nature 
may  take  place,  both  in  the  respiratory,  and  particularly  the  digest- 
ive tract,  we  tind  good  grounds  for  accepting  this  hypothesis  as  the 
one  favoring  the  general  way  in  which  infection  takes  place. 

Slight  abrasions  of  the  mucosa  of  the  nostrils,  pharynx,  cheeks, 
etc.,  or  even  that  of  the  tesojihagus,  stomach,  and  intestines,  are  very 
common  with  our  own  species :  how  much  more  so  in  our  domestic 
and  other  animals  which  seek  their  food  in  a  natural  manner,  or  re- 
ceive it  from  the  none  too  careful  hands  of  man  ! 

An  unhealthy  mucosa  is  of  itself  seldom  intact  ;  abrasions  of  its 
epithelial  covering  are  very  common,  even  though  they  do  not  occa- 
sion sucli  disturbances  as  to  lead  one  to  suspect  any  very  serious 
trouble.  The  proneness  of  the  niminantia  to  take  up  all  sorts  of 
foreign  objects — nails,  hair-pins,  broken  glass,  and  even  knives  and 
fork? — is  well  known  to  many. 

Traumatic  inflammation  of  the  stomach  and  heart  are  no  uncom- 


100  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  AXIMALS. 

mon  diseases  in  our  cows,  especially  such  as  are  grazed  on  road-sides 
and  house-yards. 

Traumata,  wounds  in  the  cutis,  are  very  common  among  our 
animals,  and  much  more  so  among  grazing  animals,  especially  on 
the  feet  and  legs  and  around  the  hoofs ;  and  as  these  parts  are  fre- 
quently in  places  where  germs  would  be  abundant  (marshes,  etc.), 
they  offer  the  most  favorable  atria  to  the  penetration  of  germs. 

How  do  germs  act  ? 

By  depriving  the  body  of  nutritive  material,  by  obstruction,  cap- 
illary embolism,  and  by  the  products  which  either  of  themselves, 
or  by  the  disease-processes,  are  induced  by  them. 

That  they  require  large  quantities  of  oxygen  has  been  made  ap- 
parent ;  and  it  is  self-evident  that,  on  their  entrance  into  the  body, 
there  must  be  a  constant  struggle  with  the  red  blood-cells  for  this 
necessary  gas.  Whether  they  produce  carbonic-acid  gas  (COj),  and 
thus  add  to  its  accumulation  in  the  system,  is  still  an  open  question. 

That  capillary  embolism  is  possible  has  been  too  frequently  ob- 
served to  be  questioned.  This  condition  would  be  but  another  way 
by  which  parts,  not  the  whole,  of  the  system,  are  shut  off  from 
oxygen  and  other  nutritive  material. 

Infectious  diseases  do  not  seem  to  last  long  enough  to  cause  ne- 
crosis, or  necrobiosis  (death),  in  parts  thus  shut  off  from  the  circula- 
tion ;  at  least,  never  in  my  reading  have  I  met  with  any  description 
of  phenomena  similar  to  those  we  meet  with  in  ordinary  embolism. 

When  an  organism  withstands  the  invasion  of  an  infectious  dis- 
ease, we  may  assume  that  it  offers  no  longer  a  favorable  condition  to 
the  bacteria ;  they  die,  suffer  some  sort  of  a  dissolution,  and  are 
passed  off  as  an  effete  material. 

Disinfection. 

The  birth  of  crude  empiricism  may  be  asserted  to  have  been 
coeval  with  the  first  realization  of  pain  or  suffering  on  the  part  of 
man.  The  aim  of  modern  medicine  is  prevention.  We  are  ear- 
nestly endeavoring  to  make  practical  the  old  saying,  "  An  ounce  of 
prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure." 

The  men  who  boast  of  their  "  cures  "  are  slowly  becoming  less 
numerous  among  the  true  practitioners  of  medicine. 

As  observers  slowly  came  to  the  idea  that  one  disease,  and  then 
another,  was  due  to  some  inficiens  ;  that  many  such  diseases  were 
strictly  or  partly  contagious — that  is,  passing  directly  from  one  ani- 
mal organism  to  another — they  began  first  to  take  means  to  prevent 
them :  hence  restrictions  of  commerce,  not  only  with  regard  to  hu- 


INFECTIOX.  101 

man  beings,  but  animals  and  their  products.  This  restrictive,  pre- 
ventive medicine,  if  we  may  be  allowed  the  term,  has  been  rewarded 
by  the  grandest  results,  though  it  at  first  paid  little  or  no  attention 
to  the  primary  causes  of  the  diseases  it  sought  to  prevent.  The 
causes  it  recoy:nized  were  those  of  intercourse  and  commerce.  It 
sought  to  regulate  these  with  reference  to  the  contagious  diseases, 
and  the  result  has  been  that  the  black-death  and  bubo-pest  have 
become  entire  strangers  to  Western  Europe ;  Asiatic  cholera  is  no 
longer  the  terror  of  the  civilized  world.  Aside  from  the  benefits  of 
vaccination,  the  varioliB  no  more  carry  horror  into  the  human  family. 
The  cattle-owner  of  Europe  does  not  awaken  on  any  morning  and 
find  the  rinderpest  devastating  his  herd.  The  lung-plague  of  cattle 
is  kept  within  restricted  limits,  and  so  of  other  diseases  of  like  na- 
ture. 

Tliese  remarks  have  no  relation  to  diseases  of  a  purely  malarial 
character,  which  are  based  on  locality.  Here  we  have  to  do  with 
questions  of  drainage,  tillage,  and  the  like,  which  we  will  not  dis- 
cuss at  present. 

"While  this  work  of  modern  medicine  is  of  no  secondary  impor- 
tance, the  results  of  the  observations  and  experiments  of  recent 
years  have  opened  still  another  path  to  the  workers  in  preventive 
medicine. 

They  have  discovered  the  causes  of  some  diseases,  and  gained 
knowledge  that  justifies  us  in  assuming  that  the  causes  of  all  infec- 
tious and  contagious  diseases  are  of  a  similar  nature.  This  cause 
is  the  schizomycetes  or  fission-fungi,  and  their  germs,  which  bear 
the  general  name  of  micrococci  or  microbes. 

Having  discovered  these  objects,  the  next  step  has  been  to  study 
their  mode  of  life,  how  they  live  and  multiply,  what  elements  favor 
these  processes,  and  what  are  opposed  to  them. 

Our  conceptions  in  this  regard  are  still  far  from  clear,  and  too 
frecpiently  our  action  is  based  on  mistaken  reasoning. 

We  too  often  think  that,  when  we  have  removed  the  odor  from 
an  offensive  place  or  substance,  we  have  destroyed  its  disease-pro- 
ducing qualities,  a  hope  which  is  only  too  soon  negatived  by  expe- 
rience. 

The  resistibility  of  germs  is  such  that  we  may  look  upon  it  as 
very  nearly  fallacious  to  disinfect  the  atmosphere  by  adding  to  it 
chlurine-gas,  or  sulphur,  or  any  similar  disinfectants.  Such  disin- 
fection is  more  or  less  an  idea  inherited  from  the  earlier  days  of 
preventive  medicine,  and  not  in  conformity  with  our  present  knowl- 
edge. 


102  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

In  considering  the  question  of  disinfection  we  must  ever  bear  in 
mind  that  the  fission-fungi,  or  their  spores,  always  occnr  in  one  of 
two  conditions  ;  that  is,  moist  or  dry.  This  fact  should  always  be 
settled  before  we  decide  as  to  our  disinfecting  procedures.  When 
in  a  moist  medium,  bacteria  are  much  more  easily  destroyed  than 
when  united  with  a  dry. 

If  we  meet  with  them  in  a  fluid,  a  boiling-heat  is  necessary  to 
their  destruction.  Temperatures  of  77°  to  10^°  Fahr.  are  in  general 
favorable  to  bacterial  life.  The  most  advantageous  has  been  found 
to  be  95°  Fahr.  The  resistibility  to  high  temperatures  varies  in  the 
different  bacteria.  A  temperatui-e  of  113"  to  122°  Fahr.  has  been 
found  sufficient  to  kill  bacteria  thernio,  while  bacilli  have  been 
found  to  resist  176°  Fahr.  Extreme  degrees  of  cold  are  far  less 
effective  to  their  destruction  than  heat.  We  have  too  often  assumed 
that  when  our  antiparasitics,  or,  better,  antiseptics,  have  prevented 
the  fermentative  processes,  the  germs  have  been  destroyed  also. 
"While  heat  is  the  most  effective  of  all  the  disinfectants,  we  shall 
make  no  mistake  in  adding  to  it  those  chemicals  which  are  at  enmity 
with  bacterial  life. 

Nageli  sums  up  his  remarks  on  disinfection  as  follows  : 

1.  The  infectious  elements  can  not  be  securely  destroyed  when 
in  an  absolutely  dry  condition. 

2.  Boiling-heat  can  only  surely  kill  them  when  they  are  in  a 
moist  or  fluid  medium. 

3.  The  antiseptics  which  have  gained  acceptance  are  not  posi- 
tively death  to  them ;  they  only  place  them  in  an  inactive  condi- 
tion, that  is,  consume  them.  (This  argument  is  open  to  the  objec- 
tion that,  in  disinfection,  the  disinfectants  have  been,  or  have  to  be, 
used  in  too  diluted  a  condition,  or  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  come 
either  directly  or  in  sufficient  volume  in  contact  with  the  bacteria. 
This  last  must  nearly  always  be  the  case  in  spray  or  smoke  disinfec- 
tion, which  we  believe  to  be  an  illusion.) 

4.  They  are  changed,  not  destroyed,  by  decomposition  of  media, 
by  means  of  a  surplus  of  water  or  heat,  so  that  they  lose  their  infec- 
tious properties. 

5.  They  are  harmless  when  removed  in  a  moist  condition. 

The  true  value  of  the  internal  application  of  the  antiseptics  is  of 
a  very  questionable  nature ;  for  these  materials  exert  fully  as  poi- 
sonous an  influence  upon  the  autositic  as  the  parasitic  organism. 

In  some  cases,  as  in  intermittent  fever,  it  would  seem  as  if  we 
could  bring  the  organism  so  under  the  influence  of  quinine  as  to  act 
against  the  proliferation  of  the  spirillum.      That  this  bacterium  dis- 


INFECTION.  103 

appears  in  the  intervals  of  tlie  fever  has  been  mentioned.  AVhere 
it  comes  from  a^ain  during  the  paroxysms  is  an  open  question. 

AVhile  this  may  be  true,  in  a  measure,  of  quinine,  boracic  acid, 
and  some  other  materials,  the  internal  use  of  the  stronger  antisep- 
tica  in  suthcieut  volume  is  too  dangerous  to  be  tried. 

A  special  study  of  the  antiseptics  would  lead  us  too  much  into 
details  for  our  present  purpose,  and  I  must  refer  my  readers  to  the 
works  uptm  that  subject;  among  the  disinfectants  are  the  corrosive 
acids,  carbol,  tliymol,  boracic  acid,  hypermanganate  of  potasli,  the 
coal-tar  preparations,  and  the  long  list  of  antiputrids. 

AlfTIIRAX    AND    AnTHRACOID    DISEASES, 

The  word  anthrax  is  of  Greek  origin,  and  means  a  coal.  Tlie 
name  wjvs  not  originally  given  to  a  single  disease,  but  to  a  group  of 
diseases  which  were  characterized  by  a  black,  tarry  appearance  of  the 
blood.  In  any  form,  the  blood  is  essentially  complicated,  while  all 
the  organs  of  the  body  are  more  or  less  aifected. 

Modern  research  has  led  to  the  isolation  of  one  disease  from  this 
group  as  anthrax. 

The  others  may  be  called  anthracoid  (i.  e.,  anthrax-like)  diseases. 

They  are  all  germ-diseases ;  but  the  germ  which  has  led  to  the 
isolation  of  one  disease  as  anthrax  has  singular  characteristics  in 
its  mature  or  bacterial  form  which  enable  us  to  distinguish  it  from 
other  almost  similar  bacteria. 

The  disease  is  also  known  as  charbon  (carbuncle),  Milzbrand,  etc. 

Jlisiori/. 

Of  all  the  pests,  or  infectio-contagious  animal  diseases,  anthrax 
seems  to  be  the  one  of  which  we  have  the  earliest  historical  rec<»rd. 
Moses  has  apparently  described  it  as  one  of  the  plagues  by  which 
Jehovah  punished  the  Egyptians.  The  early  Greek  and  Roman 
writers  mention  it  under  the  names  of  sacer  ignis  ;  gutta  robea  ;  also 
by  its  present  name,  and  it  is  also  mentioned  by  Arabic  writers  as 
"  Al  Immrah''  or  '*  Persian  fire." 

Charbert  was  the  first  author  to  enter  into  any  clear  and  criti- 
cal study  of  the  various  diseases  of  this  group,  and  published  a  work, 
"  Description  et  Traitement  du  Charbon,"  Paris,  1780,  which  even  at 
the  present  day  exerts  more  or  less  influence,  especially  in  France. 

Although  the  observations  of  the  eighteenth  century  led  many 
authors  to  declare  for  the  contagiousness  of  anthrax,  still  others 
declared  it  to  be  non-contagious.  Kausch,  an  author  early  in  this 
century,  gave  a  good  description  of  the  pathological  changes  of  this 


104  THE   DISEASES   OF   DOMESTIC   AXIMALS. 

disease,  and  looked  upon  it  cliieflj  as  a  paralysis  of  the  pulmonary 
nerves,  but  declared  himself  for  the  infection  of  man  and  animals 
by  means  of  the  blood,  flesh,  etc. 

Delafond,  1843,  studied  the  disease  among  sheep  ("Maladie  de 
Sang"),  and  looked  upon  the  abomasum  and  intestines  as  the  chief 
seats  of  the  disease,  and  declared  it  to  be  an  acute  enteritis  by 
which  the  blood  was  also  complicated.  He  denied  the  infectious 
character  of  the  disease,  and  sought  its  etiology  in  hyper-nourish- 
ment, and  in  abnormal  chemical  changes  in  the  earth.  Gerlach 
1845,  looked  upon  this  disease  of  sheep  as  identical  with  anthrax, 
and  proved  its  infectiousness  by  direct  experiment,  and  considered 
the  contagium  to  be  volatile  aud  having  great  tenacity. 

Heusinger,  in  his  noted  historical  work  upon  "  Animal  Plagues," 
looked  upon  the  disease  as  a  malarial  neurosis,  and  assumed  that  the 
infectious  elements  acted  chiefly  upon  the  ganglionic  nerve-centers. 
The  primary  changes  consisted  of  a  paralysis  of  the  blood-vessels 
of  the  spleen  and  the  consequential  death  of  its  tissues,  hence  its 
German  name,  "  Milzbrand  "  ;  following  this,  the  disease  is  charac- 
terized by  vascular  jjaralysis,  blood-stasis,  extravasations,  and  necro- 
sis in  different  organs.  Contagious  elements  are  developed  by  the 
disease,  which  lead  to  its  extension.  These  elements  are  taken  up 
by  the  lymph  and  blood-vessels,  chiefly  the  latter,  from  the  parts 
primarily  complicated.  The  apparent  divergence  with  which  the 
disease  manifests  itself  in  different  animals  is  not  essential,  as  the 
essentials  of  the  disease  are  nearly  the  same  in  all.  The  disease  de- 
velops primarily  in  grazing  animals,  solipeds,  ruminants,  and  swine. 
All  animals  are  open  to  infection. 

In  1855  Virchow  followed  Heusinger  in  declaring  for  the  mala- 
rial nature  of  the  disease ;  he  emphasized  its  septic  character,  and 
looked  upon  the  cause  as  a  specific  ferment.  "Wald,  1862,  laid  spe- 
cial emphasis  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil  in  the  generation  of  anthrax. 

In  1856  Pollender  broke  the  ground  which  has  gradually  led  to 
our  modern  views  of  the  true  nature  of  anthrax,  and  its  isolation 
from  kindred  diseases;  so  early  as  1849  he  had  found  peculiar  staff- 
like bodies  in  the  blood  of  anthrax-diseased  animals.  Entirely  inde- 
pendent from  the  observations  of  Pollender,  Brauell,  professor  at 
Dorpat,  Russia,  found  (1857)  the  same  microscopic  elements  in  the 
blood  of  men,  sheep,  and  horses  that  had  perished  from  the  disease. 
He  looked  upon  them  as  vibrios,  and  as  he  found  them  intra  vitam 
(during  life)  in  the  blood  of  such  animals,  considered  them  to  have 
diagnostic  value,  while  Pollender  declared  their  importance  to  be 
still  an  open  question. 


INFECTION.  105 

The  discovery  of  tliese  two  observers  gradually  drew  the  at- 
tention of  scientists  to  the  study  of  this  disease,  and  it  may  be  truly 
asserted  that  no  single  disease  has  enjoyed  so  much  observation  in 
modem  or  ancient  days. 

By  means  of  a  succession  of  experiments  Brauell  came  to  the 
knowledge  that  the  peculiar  staff-like  bodies  appeared  from  one,  two, 
or  three,  and  in  some  cases  eight  to  ten  hours  before  the  death  of  the 
diseased  organism,  and  when  the  course  of  the  disease  was  very  acute, 
but  a  few  moments  before  its  fatal  termination,  while  they  were  not 
to  be  seen  in  the  blood  of  convalesents,  lie  credited  these  objects 
with  a  ])rognostic  and  diagnostic  value,  but  denied  to  them  any  etio- 
logical importance,  as  the  disease  could  be  produced  with  blood  which 
did  not  contain  them,  a  fact  which  will  find  its  explanation  later  on. 

These  peculiar  bodies  were  not  looked  upon  in  the  same  light 
by  different  observers,  some  considering  them  as  coagaluted  fibrin 
(Briickmiiller,  "Zootomie- Pathologique"),  fragments  of  broken- 
down  tissues,  blood-crystals,  while  Delafond  looked  upon  them  as 
a  species  of  leptothrix.  In  1S60  the  last-named  author  adopted  the 
views  of  Brauell. 

In  1803  Davaine  declared  these  bodies  to  be  bacteria,  and,  in 
order  to  distinguish  them  from  the  motory  bacteria  of  putrefaction, 
gave  them  the  name  of  hacterklicn.  As  the  blood  without  them 
was  not  infectious,  he  declared  them  to  be  the  specific  cause  of  this 
disease.  The  bacteridii\}  are  destroyed  by  putrefaction,  but  may  be 
preserved  for  a  long  time  in  a  desiccated  condition. 

After  this  time,  there  followed  a  period  of  the  greatest  diver- 
gence in  the  views  of  different  observers  as  to  the  true  nature  and 
place  of  these  objects :  all  sorts  of  things — blood-crystals,  the  bac- 
teria of  putrefaction,  the  cent-like  rolls  of  the  blood-cells,  etc. — 
were  declared  to  be  the  same  as  the  bacteridiiB.  Davaine's  work, 
more  than  that  of  any  other  author,  gradually  led  to  the  production 
of  order  out  of  this  chaos. 

He  found  the  bacteria  to  be  present  in  the  majority  of  cases  of 
anthrax,  an<l  that  they  frequently  appeared  before  the  outbreak  of 
the  symptoms  of  diseases ;  when  they  disappeared,  by  putrefaction 
or  otherwise,  the  infectiousness  of  the  blood  ceased.  The  number 
of  bacilli  in  a  single  drop  of  blood  was  estimated  by  Davaine  at 
eight  to  ten  millions ;  and  he  claimed  that  a  drop  of  blooil  diluted 
to  a  million  times  its  volume  by  water  was  still  competent  to  pro- 
duce infection. 

The  modern  workers  in  this  field  of  mycology  are  sufficiently 
known  through  our  general  study  of  the  bacteria. 


X06  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

Etiology. 

Our  studies  have  led  us  to  the  conchision  that  anthrax  is  an 
acute  infectious  disease  due  to  the  action  of  specific  germs  called 
bacteria.  The  disease  verj  frequently  assumes  an  enzootic  or  epi- 
zodtic  form,  although  it  is  frequently  sporadic  in  its  appearance  and 
occurs  mostly  in  grazing  animals  and  swine,  but  is  also  transmissi- 
ble to  man. 

The  nature  of  the  earth  plays  no  unimportant  part  in  enzootic 
outbreaks  of  the  disease.  The  disease  is  found  most  frequently  in 
localities  where  the  earth  contains  much  moisture,  and  in  regions 
where  the  rivers,  brooks,  or  swam2)s  are  subject  to  drying  out ;  in 
fact,  in  just  such  districts  where  intermittent  fever  prevails  among 
men. 

In  many  regions,  such  places  become  generally  known  as  in- 
fected districts,  and  are  either  fenced  off  or  the  animals  kept  from 
grazing  upon  them,  or  they  have  been  turned  to  cultivation,  which 
has  led  to  the  manifest  decrease  of  the  disease.  Such  regions  are 
especially  frequent  in  the  Bavarian  Alps,  w^here  I  studied  the  dis- 
ease Tinder  the  guidance  of  Professor  Feser,  of  the  Munich  Veteri- 
nary School.  One  is  surprised  that  such  infected  localities  are  often 
to  be  found  at  the  very  tops  of  the  mountains  or  upon  highly  situ- 
ated levels. 

An  undue  degree  of  moisture  in  the  earth  seems  to  favor  the 
develoj)ment  of  the  bacteria. 

While  there  is  much  similarity  in  the  telluric  nature  of  regions 
where  anthrax  and  intermittent  fever  prevail,  it  is  not  in  accordance 
with  practical  experience  that  both  diseases  should  prevail  in  them, 
for  we  find  the  one  where  the  other  does  not  appear,  and  mce  versa. 
"While  anthrax  is  a  disease,  the  generation  of  which  seems  so  largely 
dependent  on  the  nature  of  the  ground,  it  is  by  no  means  a  malarial 
disease.  It  never  prevails  to  any  such  extent  as  intermittent  fever, 
even  in  regions  where  it  appears,  and  which  offer  every  condition 
favorable  to  its  development. 

The  presence  of  the  peculiar  infectious  elements  is  always  ne- 
cessary to  the  generation  of  the  disease,  no  matter  how  favorable 
the  telluric  conditions  may  appear  to  their  development. 

My  friend  Dr.  Oemler  reduced  an  annual  loss  of  twenty-one 
per  cent  among  the  sheep  of  his  district  in  Germany  to  two  per 
cent  by  energetic  opposition  to  the  burial  of  all  cadavers  of  animals 
that  had  died  from  the  disease.  Similar  results  have  followed  a 
like  procedure  on  the  part  of  numerous  other  competent  observers. 


INFECTION.  107 

A  Russian  commission,  appointed  to  look  into  the  causes  of  anthrax, 
reported  the  chief  cause  of  the  epizootic  outbreaks  of  the  disease  to 
he  the  inco?npIet'.'  burial  and  removal  of  the  cadavers  of  horses 
which  had  perished  from  it. 

Every  animal  diseased  witli  anthrax,  or  its  cadaver,  or  any  por- 
tion of  the  same,  must  be  looked  upon  as  a  dangerous  center  from 
which  infection  may  proceed. 

The  physical  conditions  of  the  earth,  viz.,  its  amount  of  water, 
chemical  constituents,  and  temperature,  must  always  be  looked  upon 
in  considering  the  generation  of  anthrax. 

Practical  experience  goes  to  prove  that  extreme  drying  out  or 
draining  of  a  suspected  or  known  district  is  unfavorable  to  the  de- 
velopment of  its  infectious  elements.'  In  such  cases,  rains  following 
great  heat  and  drought  are  generally  characterized  either  by  the  re- 
appearance of  the  disease  or  its  greater  prevalence.  On  the  con- 
trary, drought  and  heat  favor  its  appearance  in  very  moist  districts. 
The  disease  is  generally  most  prevalent  in  such  districts  when  the 
temperature  of  the  earth  has  reached  its  highest  maximum.  This 
is  generally  in  our  latitude  in  the  months  of  August  and  September. 

A  question  of  importance  in  the  generation  of  this  disease  is,  Is 
an  impregnation  of  the  earth  with  the  infectious  elements  necessary 
to  the  development  of  the  disease,  or  are  they  capable  of  independ- 
ent development  in  such  earth  by  the  metamorphosis  from  some 
other  kind  of  fungi  already  present  ? 

The  previously  mentioned  practical  observations  of  the  careful 
removal  of  cadavers,  instead  of  burial,  would  seem  to  favor  the 
first  of  these  views. 

The  chief,  if  not  the  only,  cause  of  anthrax  must  be  sought  in 
infection,  in  general,  not  direct,  but  by  means  of  some  vehicle,  the 
infectious  elements  being  extremely  tenacious  of  life  and  easily 
transported,  as  has  been  painfully  illustrated  by  cases  in  man  due  to 
dried  hides  brought  from  a  distance,  curled  hair,  or  other  animal 
derivatives. 

The  most  frequent  carriers  of  infection  are  cither  diseased  ani- 
mals, their  excretions,  or  their  products — hides,  horns,  hoofs,  etc. 
Again,  healthy  animals,  or  even  men,  flies,  gnats,  etc.,  may  serve  as 
vehicles  to  infection.  Gerlach  reports  numerous  cases  among  shec]) 
due  to  the  bite  of  the  dogs  used  to  tend  them,  where  the  latter  have 
been  fed  or  have  fed  themselves  upon  the  cadavers  of  sheep  that 
had  perished  from  the  disease. 

Davaine  frequently  produced  the  disease  by  inoculations  with 
the  probosces  or  feet  of  flies  which  had  first  been  permitted  to  pol- 


108  THE  DISEASES'  OF  DOMESTIC  AXIMALS. 

lute  themselves  with  the  blood  from  animals  that  had  died  from  the 
disease. 

Bollinger  reports  finding  the  specific  bacteria  of  anthrax  in  the 
blood  of  flies  which  were  caught  upon  the  cadavers  of  such  animals, 
and  to  have  produced  the  disease  in  rabbits  by  inoculating  with  the 
same. 

As  further  vehicles  of  infection  we  may  mention  the  harness, 
stable-utensils,  straw,  and  haj,  etc.,  which  have  been  in  contact 
with  diseased  animals. 

Articles  of  food — beets,  turnips,  carrots — which  have  been  raised 
upon  lands  where  cadavers  from  anthrax-diseased  animals  have  been 
buried,  have  been  asserted  to  have  caused  this  disease  when  fed  to 
cattle. 

The  fluids  of  the  stable — urine,  etc. — seem  to  be  less  dangerous, 
as  putrefaction  is  known  to  be  in  opposition  with  the  life  of  these 
germs. 

The  respiratory  tract,  the  external  cutis,  and  digestive  tract,  are 
the  chief  atria  of  the  infectious  elements,  though  the  flesh  of  such 
animals  has  often  been  consumed  with  impunity ;  still,  feeding  ex- 
periments upon  animals  susceptible  to  the  disease  have  sufficiently 
proved  the  infectiousness  of  such  meat.  The  susceptibility  to  in- 
fection is  greater  in  the  ruminants — tame  and  wild — than  in  the 
solipeds,  less  in  the  omnivora,  and  still  less  in  the  carnivora ;  the 
cat,  however,  more  so  than  the  dog. 

Nature  of  the  Infectious  Elements. 

"While  we  have  already  noticed  this  subject  in  our  general  con- 
sideration of  the  bacteria,  it  is  of  such  great  im23ortance  that  we 
may  be  warranted  in  treating  it  still  more  in  detail. 

The  fact  that  anthrax  could  be  generated  in  an  experimental 
way,  with  blood  in  which  the  bacteridise  could  not  be  discovered, 
has  led  many  authors  to  deny  to  them  any  etiological  importance. 
This  fact  remained  incontrovertible  until  observers  had  advanced 
in  the  study  of  the  life  of  these  parasites. 

Fii'st  their  minuteness,  and  again  the  very  small  quantity  neces- 
sary to  infection,  may  have  led  authors  to  this  mistaken  conclusion ; 
but,  above  all,  it  was  the  ignorance  of  the  earlier  observers  of  the 
spore  of  the  schizoraycetic  fungi  which  led  them  into  tliis  error. 

An  interesting  fact  with  reference  to  the  iiiti*a-orcjanismal  life  of 
the  bacteria  of  anthrax  is,  that  the  placenta  offers  a  natural  filtra- 
tion apparatus,  which  prevents  them  passing  from  the  blood  of  the 
mother  to  that  of  the  foetus.     Inoculation  experiments  have  demon- 


INFECTION.  109 

strated  not  onlj  the  presence  of  tlie  l)actcria  in  the  bk")od  of  tlie 
mother,  and  their  absence  in  that  of  the  foetus,  but  also  that,  while 
the  blood  of  the  mother  was  highly  infectious,  that  of  the  ftetus 
was  wanting  in  this  quality. 

This  only  goes  to  prove  that  in  this  case,  even  if  the  micrococci, 
or  germ  condition  of  the  bacteria,  be  present  in  the  mother,  it  is 
not  so  in  the  ftetus ;  but  does  not  militate  against  the  })rovc'd  fact 
that  blood  from  anthrax-diseased  animals  without  bacteria  is  still 
infectious. 

Feser  has  made  some  interesting  experiments  with  regard  to 
the  filtering  ability  of  the  milk-glands  in  sheep.  lie  has  inocu- 
lated ewes  with  lambs  by  their  side,  and  proved  that  infection  had 
taken  place,  both  by  examination  of  the  blood  and  by  experiments 
with  the  same  upon  other  animals ;  but  the  lambs  did  not  become 
infected  from  the  mother's  milk,  although  isolated  bacteria  were  to 
be  seen  in  the  same.  Inoculations  made  with  such  milk,  however, 
produced  the  disease  in  other  animals. 

The  presence  of  the  bacteria  in  the  milk,  and  its  infectiousness 
on  inoculation,  while  the  lambs  feeding  upon  it  were  not  infected) 
go  to  support  a  theory  of  infection  we  have  alreddy  considered  in 
our  general  remarks,  viz.,  that  a  wounded  or  al)raded  surface  is  ne- 
cessary to  the  infection  of  an  organism.  In  lambs  feeding  upon 
milk  alone  such  is  surely  impossible  in  the  coui*se  of  the  digestive 
tract. 

The  fact  that  bacteria  pass  the  membranes  of  the  milk-glands 
and  not  those  of  the  placenta,  may  be  explained  by  the  mechanical 
action  and  minor  lesions,  which  can  result  to  the  milk-glands  from 
the  suckinj;  and  buttiu":  of  the  lambs. 

As  we  have  frequently  mentioned,  this  disease  is  now  known  to 
be  due  to  a  specific  cause — a  schizophyte,  or  vegetable  parasite, 
bacillus  anthracis — a  staff-shaped  bacterium  which  multiplies  by 
spores. 

An  English  observer,  Ewart,  of  University  College,  London, 
gives  a  very  clear  descri]>tion  of  the  life  of  these  germs,  which  may 
not  be  out  of  place  here,  notwithstanding  all  we  have  previously 
considered  : 

"  At  first  the  bacilli  were  absolutely  motionless — they  had  been 
taken  from  the  spleen  of  a  mouse — but  in  some  cultivations,  after 
keeping  them  in  a  temperature  of  33°  C.  for  a  few  hours,  a  great 
number  of  them  began  to  move  actively  about  the  field.  While 
at  rest  they  were  not  altogether  without  change,  for  clear  lines 
across   them   indicated  that  they  were  in  the  process  of  division 


110  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

into  segments.  Sometimes  a  number  of  rods  ceased  moving,  and, 
previous  to  lengthening  out  into  filaments,  arranged  themselves  into 
patches  of  zooglea. 

"  The  division  into  two  or  more  segments  is  not  always  a  very 
rapid  process.  A  rod,  which  was  watched  until  it  divided,  was 
made  up  of  three  segments,  and  one  of  them  from  the  beginning 
looked  as  if  it  might  separate  itself  from  the  others  ;  but  after  six 
hours  of  ahnost  constant  endeavor,  it  was  still  connected  by  a  very 
delicate  thread,  and  before  final  separation,  which  took  place  after 
seven  hours'  observation,  it  was  divided  into  two  segments  in  a  com- 
paratively short  time,  so  that,  when  it  did  escape  from  the  other  ap- 
parently inactive  pieces,  it  moved  about  the  field  of  the  microscope 
like  two  freely  movable  links  of  a  chain. 

"After  assuming  this  motile  phase  for  some  time,  the  rods 
lengthened  out  into  spore-heaving  filaments. 

"  The  lengthening  of  the  rods  into  filaments  is  an  extremely  rap- 
id process,  and  is  apparently  affected  by  the  temperature.  In  five 
hours,  at  a  temperature  of  32°  C,  a  rod  may  have  increased  so  as  to 
be  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  times  its  original  length,  and  in 
twenty-four  hours  the  filament  may  be  full  of  spores.  If  the  tem- 
perature be  kept  at  about  28°  C,  the  spore  may  not  appear  until 
the  thirty-sixth  or  fortieth  hour.  When  the  spores  have  once  ap- 
peared, all  the  other  changes  go  on  at  an  ordinary  temperature  of 
from  12°  to  18°  C,  but  not  nearly  so  rapidly,  even  when  the  prepa- 
ration is  kept  in  the  sun  for  a  few  hours  daily,  as  when  artificial 
heat  is  employed.  On  the  other  hand,  a  high  temperature,  37°- 
40°  C,  at  once  checks  all  development. 

"  The  filaments,  when  first  formed,  are  perfectly  hyaline,  but 
soon  the  central  protoplasmic  contents  can  be  distinguished  from  the 
gelatinous-looking  sheath.  The  protoplasma  next  divides  into  nu- 
merous short  pieces  about  the  size  of  the  original  rod  out  of  which 
the  filament  was  formed.  These  contract,  leaving  clear  empty 
spaces  between  them,  and  often  again  divide  to  form  still  shorter 
masses  of  protoplasm. 

"  At  each  side  of  this  transverse  line  of  division  minute  clear 
specks  appear — the  first  indication  of  sjDores.  These  gradually  in- 
crease in  size  and  luster,  and  as  they  increase  the  protoplasma  dis- 
appears ;  in  fact,  the  spores  seem  to  be  developed  from  the  proto- 
plasm. Soon  after  the  appearance  of  the  spores  the  filaments  seem 
to  be  made  up  of  numerous  segments,  each  segment  containing  one 
spore,  the  spores  lying  at  the  adjacent  ends  of  the  segments.  The 
spores  now  begin  to  escape.    The  filament  gradually  disappears,  and 


INFECTION'.  Ill 

the  spores  appear  surrounded  by  a  mass  of  gelatinous  material.  The 
spores,  when  free,  according  to  previous  observers,  develop  into  rods. 
My  own  observations  lead  me  to  believe  that  the  spores  do  not  always 
at  once  grow  into  rods,  but  that  they  may  divide  into  four  sporules, 
in  which  the  envelope  as  well  as  the  spores  take  part.  The  spore  then 
elongates,  becomes  dumb-bell  sha}>ed,  and  finally  develops  into  rods." 

The  action  of  the  bacteria  within  the  autositc  is,  as  we  have  said, 
the  consumption  of  oxygen,  for  which  they  have  a  great  affinity, 
and  the  production  of  CO,.  This  fact,  the  absorption  of  O  and  ac- 
cumulation of  CO,,  would  seem  to  account  for  those  cases  of  sudden 
death  by  anthrax,  and  for  the  symptoms  by  which  the  disease  mani- 
fests itself — such  as  dyspnoea,  cyanosis,  clonic  spasms,  distended  pu- 
])il,  falling  of  the  temperature,  and  asphyxia — which  all  correspond 
with  the  phenomena  of  poisoning  with  CO,.  The  necroscopical  re- 
sults corrcs}:)ond  to  the  same :  congestion  of  the  venous  system,  a 
dark,  tar-like  condition  of  the  blood,  extravasations,  cyanotic  col- 
oring of  different  parts. 

A  peculiar  diagnostic  characteristic  of  bacillus  anthracis  is  the 
abruptness  with  which  each  segment  terminates  :  the  ends  are  square, 
as  if  cut  off,  a  condition  which  has  not  as  yet  been  observed  in  any 
other  bacteria,  not  even  B.  sultilis,  which  resembles  it  very  closely 
in  every  other  particular. 

The  tenacity  of  B.  anthracis  is  very  great.  They  may  retain 
their  virulence  in  a  desiccated  condition  for  months  or  even  years. 
10^ DQ  of  a  drop  of  blood  has  been  found  sufficient  to  cause  infection. 
Davaine  has  caused  infection  with  blood  that  had  been  kept  in  a 
dried  condition  for  twenty-two  months. 

Bollinger  sums  up  his  conclusions  as  to  the  nature  of  anthrax  as 
follows  : 

"  It  is  an  acute  infectious  disease.  The  infectious  elements  con- 
stitute a  vegetable  parasite,  which  generates  (endogenous)  within  the 
infected  organism,  and  perhaps  externally  (ectogenous),  that  is,  in 
the  earth,  when  it  finds  conditions  favoralde  thereto  ;  that  is,  when 
the  earth  has  been  first  impregnated.  Tiie  disease  is  not  contagious 
in  the  general  acceptance  of  the  word,  as  infection  from  animal  to 
animal  directly  seldom  takes  place ;  but  it  is  highly  transportable 
by  means  of  vehicles,  from  the  peculiar  characti-ristics  of  its  etiologi- 
cal elements. 

AppeajHUxce  and  Kctn.^iov. 

Anthrax  occurs  in  all  countries  and  climates,  though  to  what 
extent  it  appears  among  the  animals  of  this  country  we  have  no 
definite  knowledge. 


112  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

In  making  a  diagnosis  as  to  whether  a  given  disease  is  anthrax 
or  not,  it  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  no  bacillus  anthra- 
cis,  no  anthrax ;  when,  in  doubtful  eases,  you  can  not  decide,  in- 
oculation experiments  will  always  give  you  the  key  to  a  correct 
diagnosis. 

In  1864,  72,000  horses  died  in  Russia  alone  from  the  disease. 
In  the  province  of  Novgorod  (Russia),  from  1867-'70,  over  56,000 
horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  and  528  men,  perished. 

Phenomena  of  the  Disease. 

The  disease,  in  general,  presents  itself  under  one  of  three  forms : 

1.  The  apoplectic  form  (anthrax  acutissimus),  the  duration  of 
which  varies  from  a  few  minutes  to  several  hours. 

2.  The  acute  form  (anthrax  acutus),  the  duration  of  which  varies 
from  a  few  hours  to  some  days. 

3.  The  subacute  form  (anthrax  subacutus),  which  includes  all 
cases  of  longer  duration. 

Great  divergence  exists  among  the  various  authors  as  to  the 
duration  of  the  period  of  incubation  in  anthrax.  In  some  cases  the 
appearance  of  the  symptoms  of  the  disease  seems  to  follow  imme- 
diately on  the  introduction  of  the  inficieus.  Fever  has  been  ob- 
served within  two  hours  subsequent  to  inoculation.  Among  cattle 
the  incubation  may  continue  for  four  or  five  days  ;  in  small  animals, 
rabbits,  etc.,  twenty-four,  thirty-six,  or  forty-eight  hours  ;  seldom 
three  or  four  days.  On  account  of  the  variance  in  form  with  which 
the  disease  appears,  it  is  difficult  to  give  any  concise  description  of 
its  phenomena. 

In  the  so-called  apoplectic  form  the  infected  animals  frequently 
drop,  almost  as  if  struck  by  lightning ;  they  fall  into  convulsions, 
dyspnoea,  cyanosis,  and  in  a  few  minutes  death  results.  Frequently, 
these  violent  symptoms  are  wanting  in  all  prodromic  phenomena, 
the  animals  eating  and  appearing  apparently  as  well  as  ever.  It  is 
not  unfrequent  to  find  animals  in  the  morning  dead  in  the  stall 
which  were  apparently  perfectly  healthy  the  evening  before.  The 
acute  form  of  the  disease  appears  about  as  follows  in  horses  and  cat- 
tle :  Animals  apparently  healthy  suddenly  develop  a  loss  of  appe- 
tite ;  in  cows,  the  milk  secretion  is  restricted,  or  ceases  altogether. 
The  animals  begin  to  tremble,  and  frequently  chills  may  be  seen  to 
be  present ;  the  superficial  parts  of  the  body  become  cold.  This 
cold  stage  passes  into  a  febrile,  after  a  longer  or  shorter  period. 
Peculiar  contractions  and  clonic  spasms  of  the  extremities  are  quite 
frequent.     During  the  remissions  the  animals  appear  weak  and  de- 


INFECTION.  113 

pressed,  or  tliey  may  be  apparently  quite  well  and  ruminate,  and 
take  to  feeding. 

The  pulse  is  increased  to  double  its  normal  rapidity  ;  the  tem- 
perature rises  from  41°  to  41'7°C.  The  excrements  are  frequently 
tinged  witli  dark  blood,  or  are  bloody  and  diarrhoea-like. 

These  symptoms  are  not  constant,  but  are  interrupted  by  remis- 
sions, -svhich  may  continue  from  six  to  twenty-four  hours,  during 
which  the  animals  often  appear  as  if  quite  well  again. 

Aside  from  the  aix)plectic  and  acute  forms  of  the  disease,  we 
have  a  subacute  and  exanthematic  form,  in  which  we  meet  with  a 
carbunculous  and  erysipelatous  tumefaction  distributed  over  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  organism,  especially  on  the  posterior  extremities. 
These  tumefactions  are  generally  hot,  and  more  or  less  painful.  The 
general  habitus  of  the  animal  seems  to  suffer  but  little  change.  Re- 
sorption of  the  exudations  soon  begins,  and  it  is  not  very  frequent 
that  we  meet  with  excoriation  and  ulceration. 

From  sixty  to  seventy  per  cent  of  the  cases  of  anthrax  in  horses 
and  cattle  end  fatally,  and  are  characterized  by  the  above-mentioned 
phenomena — dyspnani,  cyanotic  condition  of  the  different  mucosae, 
opisthotonic  condition  of  a  variable  intensity,  spasms  of  the  musculi 
palpebrarum,  so  that  we  can  only  see  the  whites  of  the  eyes  ;  the 
animals  become  extremely  weak  and  are  unable  to  stand ;  the  tem- 
perature falls  below  normal ;  the  extremities  become  cold,  the  pupils 
distended,  and  death  appears,  under  the  ]ihenomena  of  asphyxia,  in 
from  twenty-four  to  forty  hours  from  the  tirst  ai)pearance  of  the 
disease. 

In  favorable  cases,  the  recovery  is  very  rapid.  The  carbuncular 
formations  in  the  cutis  are  much  less  frequently  met  with  in  cattle 
than  horses  ;  otherwise,  the  symptoms  of  the  disease  among  horses 
offer  no  essential  differentiation  from  cattle. 

The  intra-vital  phenomena  of  anthrax  in  the  smaller  domestic 
animals  are  far  less  distinctly  marked  ;  however,  we  meet  with  con- 
vulsive phenomena,  dyspnoea,  and  mydriasis. 

Pathological  Anatomy. 

The  pathological  anatomy  of  anthrax  shows  no  essential  differ- 
entiation among  the  bovine  or  equine  species.  In  cattle  which  have 
perished  during  or  of  the  disease  in  its  acute  or  apoplectic  form,  we 
find  the  blood  of  a  black-red  color,  thick  and  tar-like,  and  without 
the  ability  to  coagulate.  The  bhxjd  has  the  same  character  during 
the  intra-vital  progress  of  the  disease ;  the  entire  venous  system  is 
congested ;  the  ingesta  are  frequently  mixed  with  extravasated  blood ; 


114  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

the  intestinal  parietes,  especially  of  the  jejunum,  are  more  or  less 
infiltrated  with  a  sero-hsemorrhagic  mass.  Similar  gelatino-haemor- 
rhagic  infiltrations  may  be  seen  in  the  omentum,  mesenterium,  in 
the  eapsula  adiposa  of  the  kidneys,  the  connective  tissue  of  the  in- 
ferior parts  of  the  neck  and  mediastinum.  A  sero-haemorrhagic 
effusion  is  frequently  to  be  met  with  in  the  abdominal  and  pleural 
cavities,  particularly  the  former. 

Ecchymoses  of  variable  dimensions  are  frequently  to  be  met 
with  in  the  muscles  of  the  heart,  also  extravasations  of  variable  extent 
under  the  endocardium  and  epicardium,  particularly  about  the  auri- 
cles. Hsemorrhagic  effusions  are  frequently  to  be  met  with  in  the 
sexual  organs  of  females.  Genuine  carbuncular  eruptions  are  sel- 
dom met  with  along  the  intestinal  canal  of  cattle.  The  rigor  mortis 
is  not  of  a  very  severe  grade ;  a  frothy,  blood-stained  fluid  is  fre- 
quently to  be  seen  issuing  from  the  natural  apertures  of  the  body ; 
the  abdomen  is  frequently  distended  with  gases.  If  animals  are 
slaughtered  early  in  the  disease,  it  is  frequently  impossible  to  con- 
jecture its  nature,  if  they  have  been  allowed  to  bleed  freely,  and  the 
intestines,  etc.,  have  been  carefully  removed.  This  is  an  important 
fact  from  a  public-health  point  of  view. 

The  chief  patho-anatomic  variation  in  horses  is  that  we  meet 
this  gelatino-hsemorrhagic  infiltration  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  in 
cattle.  This  peculiar  yellow,  serous,  blackish  infiltration  is  difficult 
to  describe ;  but,  after  having  once  been  seen,  it  does  not  easily  pass 
from  remembrance,  and,  aside  from  anything  else,  even  the  fre- 
quently asserted  pathognomonic  tumefaction  of  the  spleen,  is  one  of 
the  most  characteristic  pathological  phenomena  of  anthrax.  These 
infiltrations  may  be  met  with  wherever  we  have  normally  loose  con- 
nective tissue,  the  retro-pharyngeal  and  laryngeal  region,  along  the 
trachea  and  large  blood-vessels  and  nerves,  in  the  mediastinum  and 
mesenterium,  the  organs  of  the  pelvis,  and  fatty  capsule  of  the  kid- 
neys. 

The  disease  is  not  so  marked  along  the  intestinal  tract  in  horses 
as  in  cattle ;  but  we  find  carbuncular  eruptions  and  erosions  to  a 
greater  extent  than  in  the  latter. 

The  large  glands  of  the  body — kidneys,  liver,  spleen — are  gen- 
erally tumefied,  the  parenchyma  clouded,  and  the  vessels  filled  with 
blood.  The  lymph-glands  also  show  signs  of  hypertrophy,  and 
many  bacteria  are  to  be  found  in  them. 

Aside  from  the  characteristic  bacteria,  we  find  the  white  or  col- 
orless blood-cells  numerically  increased,  sometimes  immensely. 

Leucocytosis. — ^This  condition  is  a  transient  numerical  increase 


INFECTION.  115 

of  the  white  or  colorless  blood-cells  in  proportion  to  the  red,  while 
leucaemia  is  a  permanent  increase  of  the  former  over  the  latter. 
This  increase  is  to  be  traced  to  the  hyperplastic  condition  of  the 
lymph-^Jauds  and  spleen. 

The  red  blood-cells  seem  to  suffer  some  changes ;  they  are  less 
tirm  in  their  contours,  and  have  a  greater  degree  of  adhesiveness 
than  is  conimon  to  them. 

Bacteria  are,  naturally,  to  be  discovered  only  by  the  use  of  the 
microscope  in  the  entire  capillary  system,  many  of  them  being  vir- 
tually the  seat  of  embolic  bacterial  obstruction.  The  parasites  are 
also  plentiful  in  all  the  effusions  and  extravasations,  and  frequently 
among  the  tissues. 

In  the  smaller  animals  the  necroscopical  phenomena  of  anthrax 
are  far  less  characteristic :  the  spleen  is  but  little  enlarged ;  the 
sero-hfemorrhagic  infiltrations  are  by  no  means  so  numerous,  as  well 
as  the  extravasations. 

A  special  tendency  to  rapid  cadaveric  changes  does  not  seem  so 
common  to  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats,  as  to  horses.  The  rigor  moi'tia 
often  fails,  or  is  present  to  a  minor  degree. 

Pi'ogjiosis. 

The  prognosis  in  anthrax  is  to  be  considered  as  exceedingly  un- 
favorable, sixty  to  seventy  per  cent  of  the  cases  ending  fatally 
among  the  larger  animals.  In  the  acute  and  apoplectic  forms  re- 
covery seldom  takes  place,  and  in  the  sub-acute  the  mortality  is  very 
great. 

Diagnosis. 

The  diagnosis  is  often  very  difficult  intra  vitajn^  especially  with- 
out recoui-se  to  the  microscope,  in  sporadic  cases  in  localities  where 
the  previous  occurrence  of  the  disease  does  not  give  cause  for  sus- 
picion. 

During  the  intermissions  of  the  disease,  the  microscopic  exami- 
nation of  the  blood  is  often  followed  by  negative  results,  as  well  as 
inoculative  experiments.  However,  these  should  ever  be  resorted 
to,  and,  when  taken  in  unison  with  the  above  detailed  necroscopic 
phenomena,  one  need  seldom  make  a  mistake. 

The  bacteria  may,  however,  generally  be  found  in  the  blood 
soon  after  death.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  putrefaction  is  op- 
posed to  the  life  of  the  bacteria. 

On  account  of  the  extreme  degree  of  infectiousness  possessed  by 
this  disease,  the  practitioner  must  ever  remember  that,  in  a  certain 
sense,  he  takes  his  life  in  his  hands  in  making  autopsies  upon  ani- 


116  THE  DISEASES  OF   DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

mals  which  have  died  or  are  suspected  to  have  perished  from  it. 
"With  wounded  hands,  or  even  the  slightest  abrasions  of  the  cutis, 
no  one  should  make  such  an  autopsy.  Great  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  wound  one's  self  with  the  knife,  or  upon  sharp  edges  of  broken 
bones,  for  death  is  almost  sure  to  follow. 

While  a  student  in  Yirchow's  laboratory  at  Berlin,  the  body  of 
a  tanner  who  had  died  from  anthrax  was  brought  in  ;  the  patient  had 
simply  removed  the  scab  from  a  razor-scratch  on  his  neck  with  the 
edge  of  a  raw  South  American  hide — sun-dried,  however — which  he 
was  carrying.  This  case  also  illustrates  the  extreme  tenacity  of  the 
germs  of  anthrax  when  dried. 

Prophylaxis. 

Notwithstanding  the  prevalence  of  the  idea  that  the  prevention 
of  the  enzootic  or  sporadic  outbreak  of  anthrax  in  regions  where  it 
has  constantly  appeared  is  a  task  of  great  difficulty,  we  must  say  that 
this  does  not  accord  with  practical  experience,  as  we  have  proven 
by  examples  taken  from  the  observations  of  persons  of  undoubted 
ability. 

Although  it  is  beyond  question  that  such  soils  or  districts  are 
highly  infectious,  yet  we  know  that  the  thorough  disinfection,  and 
other  removal  of  cadavers  than  by  burying,  also  a  similar  care  with 
reference  to  the  excretions  from  such  animals,  have  tended  greatly 
to  diminish  the  annual  losses  from  the  disease  in  notorious  districts. 

Diseased  animals,  as  well  as  their  cadavers,  must  be  thoroughly 
protected  from  the  attacks  of  flies,  by  keeping  the  stables  dark, 
blankets,  etc. 

As  an  excess  of  moisture,  or  drying  out  of  the  ground-water, 
are  both  known,  under  certain  previously  mentioned  conditions, 
to  favor  the  development  of  the  bacteria,  and  consequent  infection 
of  animals  exposed  thereto,  and  as  practical  experience  has  proved 
that  thorough  draining  of  such  districts  has  been  of  beneficial  effect, 
this  procedure  should  always  be  resorted  to. 

Animals  should  never  be  allowed  to  graze  upon  known  anthrax 
districts  or  suspected  pastures.  Such  places  should  be  fenced  off 
and  used  for  agricultural  purposes  after  careful  drainage. 

While  these  remarks  upon  the  soil  as  an  infectious  medium 
should  by  no  means  be  disregarded,  still  there  are  numerous  obser- 
vations and  experiences  on  the  part  of  unquestionably  competent 
men  which  seem  to  stand  in  open  contradiction  to  the  theory  of  the 
infection  of  the  earth  by  means  of  the  cadavers  of  anthrax-diseased 
animals. 


INFECTION.  117 

"Wliile  so  high  an  authority  as  Pasteur  asserts  that  the  soil  takes 
up  the  bacteria  and  preserves  them,  and  acts  as  a  medium  of  culture 
for  them — also  claiming  to  have  found  the  common  earthworm  im- 
pregnated with  them,  and  looking  upon  the  latter  as  a  vehicle  aid- 
ing in  their  dispersion — we  know  that  putrefaction  is  opposed  to 
their  life  and  proliferation.  All  cadavers  have  to  undergo  the  pro- 
cesses of  putrefaction  and  chemical  decomposition. 

Collin  buried  anthrax  victims  within  a  limited  district,  and  used 
every  means  kno^vn  to  be  favorable  to  the  life  of  the  bacteria,  yet 
be  fed  thirty-five  animals  with  plants  in  every  condition  grown 
upon  such  soil  without  producing  any  evil  effects. 

Professor  Feser  buried  a  very  large  number  of  animals  which 
had  perished  from  inoculated  anthrax,  and  from  which  repeated 
successful  intra-vital  and  j^ost-morteni  experiments  were  made,  in 
the  grounds  around  the  government  experiment  station  at  Leng- 
gries,  in  Upper  Bavaria,  yet  during  the  ensuing  summer,  when  I 
was  assistant  with  him,  we  were  unable  to  produce  a  single  success- 
ful inoculation,  not  only  from  the  soil,  but  from  the  remnants  of 
the  cadavei*s.  The  same  results  followed  like  experiments  made 
with  material  taken  from  a  very  large  number  of  places  where  an- 
thrax-diseased animals  had  been  buried  in  the  mountains. 

Roloff,  the  present  director  of  the  Berlin  school,  is,  however,  a 
strong  partisan  for  the  infectiousness  of  such  places. 

Therapeutics. 

The  administration  of  the  antiseptics  has  been  extensively  tried, 
and,  in  general,  found  unavailable  in  the  treatment  of  this  disease ; 
although  large  doses,  as  large  as  safe,  of  carbolic  acid,  are  said  to 
give  favorable  results  to^some  practitioners. 

Immunity. 

The  question  of  the  immunity  to  infection  on  the  part  of  indi- 
viduals of  the  same  species  of  animal  life,  as  well  as  the  immunity 
against  certain  diseases  of  other  species  which  exist  all  through  the 
animal  kingdom,  is  one  of  the  most  hidden  subjects  in  connection 
with  the  study  of  disease. 

The  consideration  of  this  subject  belongs,  rightly,  in  our  general 
remarks  upon  bacteria ;  but  for  special  reasons  we  have  placed  it 
here. 

"W"e  know  that  one  condition  to  infection  is  expressed  by  the 
practical  tliough  scientifically  blind  remark,  want  of  susceptibility. 
In  what  this  consists  we  know  not.     Not  every  person  exposed  to 


118  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

variola  acquires  the  disease ;  the  same  is  true  even  of  syphilis, 
gonorrhoea,  diphtheria,  and  all  the  contagious  diseases  of  man.  It 
is  equally  true  with  regard  to  pleuro-pneumonia,  anthrax,  rinderpest, 
etc.,  of  our  animals,  though  the  individual  immunity  to  infection  is 
far  less  in  some  diseases  than  others. 

Again,  syphilis  can  not  be  transmitted  to  our  domestic  animals ; 
the  glanders  to  the  bovine  family ;  pleuro-pneumonia  to  man,  or 
most  other  animals,  and  so  on  of  numerous  other  diseases ;  while 
rabies  is  the  most  generally  infectious  of  all  contagious  diseases, 
passing  to  nearly  all  warm-blooded  animals.  Foot-and-mouth  disease 
is,  again,  very  general  in  its  ability  to  infect  the  various  species. 
Man  has  a  far  greater  receptivity  to  the  contagious  diseases  of  ani- 
mals than  they  have  to  those  of  man. 

The  carnivora  possess  a  very  slight  degree  of  receptivity  to  an- 
thrax, while  birds  and  fowls  are  said  not  to  possess  any  in  a  natu- 
ral condition.  Pasteur  has  endeavored  to  show,  and  has,  in  fact,  ap- 
parently experimentally  proved,  that  it  is  the  high  temperature  of 
fowls,  42°  C,  which  is  the  cause  of  this  immunity  to  anthrax  infec- 
tion, formally  the  bacteria  do  not  develop  in  their  organisms,  but, 
when  he  cooled  their  bodies  off  artificially,  they  did  develoj),  and  the 
fowls  died. 

I  can  not  accept  these  conclusions,  and  think  the  immunity  of 
fowls  must  rest  upon  something  else  than  their  high  temperatures, 
for  we  know  that  a  temperature  of  42°  C.  is  not  at  enmity  with  the 
life  of  bacteria. 

At  the  time  that  the  above-mentioned  experiments  of  Pasteur 
came  out,  I  was  myself  busy  in  the  experimental  study  of  bacteria, 
particularly  bacillus  anthrax.  In  the  disease  itself  in  cattle,  sheep, 
horses,  and  rabbits,  the  temperature  frequently  rises  above  42°  C.  ; 
then  why  do  not  the  bacteria  cease  to  develop,  and  the  animals  re- 
cover ? 

I  have  frequently  inoculated  sheep  that  had  a  normal  temperature 
of  42°  C,  yet  the  bacteria  developed  and  the  animals  died.  Success- 
ful reinoculations  were  also  made  from  them.  I  have  inoculated 
horses  suffering  from  influenza  and  pneumonia  that  would  surely 
have  ultimately  recovered,  with  a  temperature  of  42°  C.  or  more, 
yet  the  animals  died  from  anthrax,  and  a  plentiful  development  of 
bacteria  took  place. 

The  above  condition  is  what  is  called  "natural  immunity." 

We  have  also  what  is  known  as  "  acquired  immunity." 

A  person  who  has  once  had  the  measles,  whooping-cough,  scar- 
latina, variola,  etc.,  seldom  has  the  disease  a  second  time.     Excep- 


INFECTION.  119 

tions  do  not  contradict  the  validity  of  a  rule,  though  they  would  a 
law  of  nature.     The  same  is  true  of  pleuro-pneumonia. 

Another  form  of  acquired  immunity  is  that  produced  by  inocula- 
tion, as  in  variola,  pleuro-2)neuin()nia,  and,  according  to  Pasteur,  in 
chicken-cholera  and  anthrax.  By  this  procedure  the  artificial  pro- 
duction of  a  mild  form  of  the  disease  is  able  to  prevent  natural 
infection.  According  to  Pasteur,  we  have  a  still  mure  striking 
phenomenon  in  anthrax. 

His  experiments  led  him  to  affirm  that  the  inoculation  of  ani- 
mals with  a  virus  which  has  been  attended  by  a  certain  series  of  arti- 
ficial cultivation,  made  in  a  peculiar  manner,  was  capable  of  prevent- 
ing the  eniption  of  the  diseases  when  inoculated  with  blood  of  a 
most  virulent  character. 

He  says :  "  Fifty  sheep  were  placed  at  my  disposition  for  inocu- 
lation. Twenty-five  of  them  were  inoculated  with  a  known  virulent 
nuiterial,  and  twenty-five  were  vaccinated  with  a  prepared  attenuated 
virus.  The  first  twenty-five  all  died.  Two  weeks  subsequent  to 
the  vaccination  the  other  twenty-five  were  reinoculated  witli  a  vims 
of  known  malignancy :  they  all  resisted  infection.  (This  subject  is 
of  the  greatest  importance,  but  governmental  support  is  necessary 
before  we  can  thus  advance  the  science  of  preventive  medicine  in 
this  country.) 

Again,  there  is  a  species  of  acquired  immunity  of  another  kind. 
It  is  known  that  syphilis  is  slowly  becoming  less  virulent  among  the 
people  of  the  civilized  world.  AVe  are  less  open  to  infection,  and 
the  disease  is  not  so  malignant.  People  acquire  a  certain  degree  of 
immunity  against  the  poisonous  action  of  certain  drugs,  by  gradually 
mcreasing  the  amount  taken,  as  illustrated  both  by  the  sick-bed  and 
by  acquired  habits  in  the  use  of  opium,  arsenic,  or  even  those  luxu- 
ries tobacco  and  alcohol. 

The  first  cigar  makes  us  sick,  but  finally  we  can  smoke  all  day. 
So  it  is  with  alcohol :  we  can  gradually  adapt  ourselves  to  larger  and 
larger  quantities. 

To  my  mind  there  is  but  one  explanation  to  all  this,  and  tliat  of  a 
very  philosophical  (i.  e.,  theoretical)  nature,  although  we  have  observa- 
tions and  experiences  in  the  natural  worhl  whidi  serve  to  confirm 
our  theory. 

The  two  great  forces  which  Darwin  claims  have  exerted  an  in- 
fluence upon  the  changes  that  centuries  have  produced  in  the  forms 
and  characters  of  any  species  of  animals,  are — 

1.  The  struggle  for  existence. 

2.  The  gradual  adaptation  to  natural  conditions  and  surround- 


120  THE   DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

ings,  by  wliicli  are  meant  food,  air,  water,  temperature,  cli- 
mate, etc. 

These  two  influences  liave  tended  to  fasten  upon  a  given  species 
certain  characteristics  which  become  transmissible  or  hereditary. 

The  struggle  for  existence  leads  to  the  survival  of  the  fittest. 

We  have  already  said  that  in  all  life  this  struggle  existed.  It 
exists  not  only  between  all  members  of  the  same  species,  inclusive 
of  man,  but  also  between  the  cells  which  make  up  our  organs.  In 
the  battle  for  nourishment,  only  those  cells  which  are  best  adapted, 
from  their  chemical  and  physical  characteristics,  to  their  specific 
work,  survive  ;  the  others  perish.  The  worn-out  are  continually 
replaced  by  the  new.     It  is  so  in  all  life. 

By  contagious  or  infectious  diseases  we  have  learned,  to  our  sat- 
isfaction, that  a  living  organism  enters  the  animal  body.  Being 
a  li\ang  organism,  it  must  naturally  seek  for  the  necessary  constit- 
uents to  its  nourishment  within  the  organism,  or  else  it  must  die. 
Where  it  does  not  find  it,  it  causes  no  infection ;  with  its  inability 
to  procure  it,  the  disease  caused  by  it  must  cease. 

We  have  learned  that  the  life  of  the  foreign  organism  is  depend- 
ent on  most  of  the  elements  of  nourishment  upon  which  the  life  of 
the  animal  organism,  as  a  whole,  or  its  individual  parts,  the  cells, 
depends.  The  red  blood-cells  euter  into  a  struggle  for  existence 
with  the  bacteria  for  that  life-gas,  oxygen  ;  the  various  other  cells 
of  the  body  for  the  different  chemical  constituents  necessary  to  their 
life,  the  sum  total  of  which  constitutes  the  life  of  the  infected  or- 
ganism. 

In  this  struggle,  one  or  the  other  must  win.  If  the  cells  are  the 
stronger,  the  bacteria  perish,  and  the  animal  or  individual  infected 
lives.  If  the  bacteria  are  stronger  ;  if,  added  to  their  parasitic  na- 
ture, they  also  produce  chemical  stuffs  at  enmity  with  autositic  life, 
they  are  in  a  measure  supported  by  an  ally  in  their  stiniggle  with 
the  cells  of  the  body,  and  the  autosite  dies. 

But,  with  reference  to  the  immunity  acquired,  we  have  but  one 
reasonable  explanation,  which  is  that,  in  some  unknown  way,  the 
cells  are  enabled  to  withstand  the  influences  of  their  parasitic  ene- 
mies ;  they  gradually  acquire  a  nature  which  renders  them  insus- 
ceptible to  further  attacks — i.  e.,  they  adapt  themselves  to  the  influ- 
ence exerted  by  the  above-named  poisons. 

Like  the  habitual  drinker  or  smoker,  the  cells  are  the  same  as 
the  individual  of  which  they  are  the  component  units  :  they  become 
accustomed  to  the  alcoholic  poison. 

So  it  must  be  in  those  cases  where  immunity  follows  vaccination 


INFECTION.  121 

or  inoculation.  The  cells  become  accustomed  to  the  material  in- 
troduced in  such  small  quantities,  or  it  becomes  so  changed  that  it 
is  robbed  of  sufficient  uf  its  deleterious  characteristics,  so  that,  ^vhile 
accustoming  themselves  to  its  action,  they  arc  still  able  to  overcome 
it  in  the  struggle  for  existence. 

The  continual  infection  of  the  human  race  with  syphilitic  germs 
for  centuries  has  hardened  the  cells  of  the  organism,  so  that  they 
can  better  resist  their  attacks  on  exposure  to  infection.  In  the  nat- 
ural world,  this  acquired  adaptability  to  circumstances  exerts  such 
an  inlluence  as  to  become  strongly  hereditary :  may  it  not  be  so, 
in  a  less  degree,  with  regard  to  some  diseases  ?  There  seems  to  be 
no  other  reasonable  hypothesis  by  which  we  can  explain  both  the 
natural  and  acquired  immunity  which  the  animal  species  possess 
against  certain  forms  of  infectious  diseases  and  poisons. 

Summed  up  :  Either  the  cells  are  strong  enough  to  win  in  this 
struggle  for  life  ;  or,  in  the  struggle,  they  become,  as  it  were,  accus- 
tomed to  such  influences,  and  are  no  more  open  to  the  attacks  of  the 
germs ;  or  they  are  overcome  in  the  struggle,  and  the  autositic  or 
infected  organism  dies. 

Anthrax  in  M^vn. 
Pustula  Maligna,  Carbu7icidu8  Contagiosa. 

The  fact  that  this  disease  is  transmissible  to  human  beings  should 
be  known  to  every  one.  On  account  of  the  liability  to  infection  of 
those  having  the  care  of  anthrax-diseased  animals,  it  is  essential  that 
the  veterinarian,  as  well  as  the  public,  should  have  some  knowledge 
of  its  deportment  in  the  human  organism. 

Until  recent  years  the  disease  has  been  looked  upon  l)y  most 
medical  writers  as  belonging  exclusively  to  the  surgical  branch  of 
medicine. 

That  the  disease  occurs  in  human  beings  was  known  to  very 
early  medical  writers. 

I^iiologj/. 

The  idiopathic  or  spontaneous  eruption  of  the  disease  must  be 
strongly  contradicted,  especially  as  we  have  conclusively  shown  that 
such  is  not  the  case  among  animals. 

There  are  no  sufficient  proofs  that  show  that  the  disease  ever 
occurs  in  man,  except  by  direct  inoculation  from  diseased  animals, 
or  their  products. 

^ledical  writings  do  not  give  any  evidence  that  the  disease  ever 
occurs  among  human  beings  from  the  mere  residence  in  notorious 
anthrax  districts. 


122  THE   DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC   AXIMALS. 

Man  acquires  the  disease — 

1.  By  direct  inoculation.  That  is,  persons  acquire  the  disease 
whose  occupations  bring  them  in  direct  relation  either  with  anthrax- 
diseased  animals  or  their  products. 

The  most  dangerous  procedures  are  phlebotomy,  slaughtering, 
and  skinning  diseased  animals.  The  infection  is  in  general  external, 
and  we  can  generally  find  some  wound  or  excoriation  which  made 
the  atrium  to  infection. 

2.  By  the  consumption  of  the  flesh  of  diseased  animals.  Exco- 
riations or  wounds  along  the  whole  extent  of  the  digestive  tract 
may  be  atria  of  the  disease. 

This  form  of  infection  is  veiy  rare,  but  a  sufficient  number 
of  well-constituted  cases  have  been  recorded,  many  of  them  termi- 
nating fatally,  to  make  the  consumption  of  such  flesh  a  forbidden 
article  of  food. 

3.  By  means  of  flies  and  insects.  Cases  of  this  kind  of  infection 
have  been  far  more  numerous  than  the  former. 

4.  Infection  from  man  to  man  has  been  observed,  but  few 
cases  have  been  recorded,  however. 

Those  parts  of  the  body  upon  which  infection  has  primarily 
taken  place  are  generally  the  uncovered  (84  per  cent,  Yirchow),  such 
as  the  face,  lower  arm,  hands  and  fingers,  and  neck ;  or,  in  other 
words,  infection  takes  place  most  frequently  in  those  parts  naturally 
exposed  to  contact  with  infected  material. 

Summed  up,  we  may  say  :  Anthrax  occurs  most  frequently  in 
man  in  those  places  where  it  prevails  to  the  greatest  extent  among 
animals,  and  among  those  whose  manner  of  life  brings  them  more 
or  less  intimately  into  relation  with  the  diseased  animals  or  their 
products — such  as  those  employed  at  tanneries,  wool-pulling  estab- 
lishments, and  horse-hair  factories. 

The  susceptibility  to  infection  is  less  in  man  than  in  the  larger 
domestic  animals. 

Man  enjoys  no  immunity  to  secondary  infection  from  having 
once  had  the  disease. 

(This  seems  to  stand  in  more  or  less  direct  contradiction  to  the 
experimental  results  obtained  by  Pasteur  and  others.) 

Symptoms  and  Course. 

We  will  not  go  into  detail,  but  shall  simply  consider  the  chief 
primary  symptoms,  such  as  we  should  observe  in  a  groom,  or  a  per- 
son in  whom  infection  would  be  likely  to  take  place,  for  the  treat- 
ment of  the  disease  is  such  that  an  accomplished  veterinarian  might 


INFECTION.  123 

sometimes  be  the  means  of  saving  eitlier  his  own  life  or  that  of 
others  by  immediate  action,  in  cases  where  the  dehiy  in  procuring 
a  doctor  wuukl  be  frauglit  with  great  danger  to  the  infected 
pei*son. 

The  period  of  incubation  is  seldom  less  than  from  four  to  seven 
davs  (thouirli  sliorter  periods  have  been  affirmed),  and  never  longer 
than  from  twelve  to  fourteen  days.  The  lirst  indications  of  infec- 
tion are  sensations  of  burning  and  itching,  similar  to  the  sting  of  an 
insect,  upon  the  ]>arts  where  infection  took  place.  Such  places  ap- 
2:)car  as  small,  reddish  tlea-bite  sjmts,  with  a  blackish  center.  The 
spot  at  first  swells,  but  rapidly  becomes  an  itching  nodule,  upon 
the  apex  of  which  appears  a  reddi.sh  or  bluish  vesicle,  which  soon 
bursts  and  presents  a  dark-red  base.  The  patient  frequently  de- 
stroys these  vesicles  by  scratching  before  they  come  to  maturity. 
The  excoriated  places  become  dry,  brownish,  or  red,  and  scab  over ; 
a  red  or  violet  circle  surrounds  them,  upon  which  small  vesicles 
soon  develop.  These  secondary  vesicles  contain  a  yellowish,  red- 
dish, or  blackish  fluid.  The  circle  sometimes  fails,  but  in  general 
extends,  becomes  more  and  more  tumefied,  and  the  surroundings 
oedematous  and  verj'  extensive. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  our  purpose  to  extend  these  remarks  fur- 
ther, but  the  detailed  account  of  the  symptoms  of  anthrax  can  be 
studied  in  any  good  work  on  human  medicine. 

The  disease  generally  runs  its  course  in  fatal  cases  in  from  five 
to  eight  days. 

The  first  phenomena  of  the  disease  after  the  consumption  of  the 
flesh  of  diseased  animals  generally  appear  very  rpiickly :  in  six  to  eight 
hours.  The  patients  complain  of  shivering,  weakness,  headache,  or 
general  sickness.  Death  frequently  results  in  two  or  three  days. 
Peculiar  pustulous  or  carbunculous  centers  are  frequently  to  be  met 
with  in  the  digestive  tracts ;  transudations  in  the  cavities  of  the 
body,  sero-hfemorrhagic  infiltrations  of  the  loose  connective  tissues, 
glands,  etc.,  in  which  as  well  as  the  carbuncles  the  characteristic 
bacteria  may  be  found,  as  well  as  in  all  the  capillaries  of  the  body. 

Beautiful  microscopic  specimens  showing  the  bacteria  may  be 
prepared  from  the  skin,  kidneys,  or  other  organs. 

The  diagnosis  is  comparatively  ea-sy  where  reasons  for  infection 
exist.  The  examination  of  the  blood  with  the  microscope  should 
never  be  neglected,  particularly  of  blood  o])t.'\ined  from  suspicious 
wounds  or  i>ustules,  as  the  bacteria  remain  much  longer  locally  con- 
fined than  in  animals. 


124:  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

Therapeutics. 

The  chief  aim  is  prevention  of  infection,  much  of  which  depends 
iijDon  the  veterinarian  instructing  those  exposed  to  the  danger  of 
infection  as  to  the  care  of  their  persons  and  of  animals  that  may- 
have  the  disease.  The  danger  which  may  arise  from  the  bites  of  flies, 
and  the  necessity  of  keeping  cadavers  covered,  and  of  care  in  han- 
dling them,  should  ever  be  especially  emphasized. 

The  chief  therapeutic  interference  consists  in  the  thorough  de- 
struction of  the  local  centers  where  infection  has  taken  place  with 
concentrated  carbolic  acid,  or  nitric  or  sulphuric  acid.  If  the  car- 
buncle is  fully  developed,  it  should  be  at  once  cut  out  and  the 
wound  thoroughly  cauterized. 

In  inward  infection  by  means  of  the  digestive  tract,  appropriate 
doses  of  carbolic  acid  and  quinine  should  be  resorted  to  in  unison 
with  iron,  wine,  and  other  tonics. 

Anthkacoid  Diseases. 

This  name  has  been  given  to  a  group  of  diseases  in  which  the 
necroscopic  phenomena  are  more  or  less  allied  to  those  of  anthrax. 
They  are  unquestionably  germ  or  infectious  diseases,  but  differ  from 
anthrax  in  wanting  the  specific  bacteria  of  that  disease  in  their 
course,  and  the  clinical  or  intra-vital  phenomena.  These  facts 
should  ever  be  borne  in  mind  in  the  nomenclature  or  classification 
of  diseases. 

In  veterinary  medicine  we  have  never  yet  arrived  at  an  indi- 
vidual independence,  and  our  pathological  anatomy  is  far  more 
human  than  zootomic.  But,  what  is  still  more  absurd,  clinicians, 
and  especially  the  authors  of  our  books,  both  past  and  present,  have 
given  names  to  diseases  of  our  animals  because  of  some  fancied  re- 
lation in  the  clinical  phenomena  to  human  diseases.  They  have 
forgotten  that  the  caiise  of  a  disease  should  ever  have  much  to  do 
with  its  nomenclature  or  classification. 

What  real  relation  have  the  diseases  called  measles  or  scarlatina 
of  our  animals  to  the  diseases  of  that  name  in  man  ?  Not  only  are 
they  pathologically  different,  but  their  cause  is  different. 

The  measles  of  the  hog  is  the  cystic  form  of  an  animal  parasite. 
It  is  an  invasive  not  an  infectious  disease. 

To  speak  of  scarlatina,  or  typhus,  of  the  horse  or  any  animal  is 
equally  absurd.  There  are  peculiar  infectious  diseases  of  man  due 
to  specific  causes  which  have  never  yet  been  known  to  exert  any  in- 
fluence on  animals.     You  might  fill  a  stable  with  horses  and  with 


INFECTION.  125 

cliildren  having  scarlet  fever,  but  no  infection  would  take  place  ;  or 
strew  its  floor  with  the  alvine  dejections  of  typhus  patients,  with- 
out causing  infection  of  the  horses. 

Who  ever  saw  the  characteristic  lesions  of  the  Fever's  patches  of 
human  abdominal  typhus  in  the  horse  or  any  animal  i 

The  diseases  which  we  will  consider  imder  the  head  of  anthra- 
coid  are  the  so-called  emphysema  infectiosum  (black  quarter)  of  cat- 
tle, splenic  or  Texas  fever,  and  the  hog-cholera. 

The  disease  which  Eoell  calls  typhus  equina  (purpura  of  Will- 
iams), and  which  he  looks  upon  as  anthrax  or  nearly  akin  to  it, 
bears  far  more  relation  in  its  clinical  phenomena  to  anthrax  in  man 
than  to  genuine  anthrax  in  the  horse,  though  it  is  uncjucstionably 
an  infectious  disease  and  not  a  consequential  complication  of  the 
infectious  pneumo-enteritis — influenza — of  the  horse,  or  strangles, 
as  some  veterinarians  claim.  It  occurs  as  frequently  idiopathically 
as  it  follows  either  of  these  diseases.  In  such  cases  they  simply 
act  as  a  purveyor  or  preparer  of  the  equine  organism  to  the  action 
of  a  new  inficieus. 

EMPnYSEMA  Infectiosum. 

This  disease,  which  is  known  to  lis  as  black  quarter,  from  the 
peculiar  color  of  sections  of  the  muscles,  or  as  Rauschbrand  to  the 
Germans,  from  the  peculiar  rustling  which  follows  stroking  the  skin 
or  cutting  through  the  flesh  of  such  animals,  has  quite  a  number  of 
pathological  phenomena  in  common  with  anthrax,  and  frequently 
occurs  in  the  same  localities.  In  its  clinical  appearances  it  is  very 
diflerent. 

It  is  peculiarly  a  bovine  disease ;  but  I  have  had  a  case  in  a 
horse  in  Boston  during  the  past  year.  I  saw  numerous  cases  of  the 
disease  among  cattle  during  my  studies  of  anthrax  in  the  Bavarian 
mountains  in  1878. 

In  the  following  remarks  I  shall  mainly  follow  the  description 
of  the  disease  as  given  by  Professor  Feser,  who  with  Bollinger  has 
been  the  only  one  that  has  given  any  special  study  to  it. 

This  disease  of  cattle  has  undoubtedly  been  known  for  a  long 
time,  but  has  always  been  looked  upon  as  an  abortive  form  or  pecul- 
iar symptom  of  anthrax,  no  independent  study  of  it  having  ever  taken 
place  until  the  two  observers  named  paid  especial  attention  to  it. 
It  occurs  everywhere,  but  the  Bavarian  Alps  are  especially  visited 
by  it.  It  is  not  so  much  found  in  the  hot  months  as  anthrax,  but 
in  general  occurs  at  about  the  same  period.  It  is  neither  anthrax 
nor  any  form  of  anthrax. 


126  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

Etiology. 

Like  anthrax,  it  is  also  due  to  specific  infectious  elements  belong- 
ing to  the  same  class  of  bacteria — the  fission  fungi.  The  bacteria 
of  this  disease  are  shorter  and  finer  than  those  of  anthrax,  and  do 
not  end  with  the  abruptness  which  is  the  characteristic  of  bacillus 
anthracis.  They  are  also  movable  bacteria,  while  those  of  anthrax 
do  not  in  general  betray  any  motion.     They  multiply  by  spores. 

Feser  gives  the  following  necroscopical  description :  "  Distinct 
rigor  mortis  of  the  well-fattened  cadaver.  Visible  mucosee  dark 
red.  The  left  over-arm,  the  left  shoulder  and  a  j^art  of  the  right, 
and  the  middle  portion  of  both  posterior  limbs  were  much  tumefied, 
and  a  distinct  crepitation — rastling — was  both  to  be  felt  and  heard 
on  passing  the  hand  heavily  over  these  parts.  The  axillary  and 
inguinal  lymph-glands  were  to  be  distinctly  felt  as  hard  nodes  un- 
der the  skin.  The  subcutis  and  tendinous  aponeuroses  were  filled 
with  a  yellow,  gelatinous  infiltration  in  those  places  which  were 
tumefied.  The  connective  tissue  in  the  vicinity  of  the  large  vessels 
was  much  thickened  and  infiltrated  with  a  mass  similar  in  appearance 
to  the  above.  The  muscles  appeared  in  many  places  of  a  dark-red 
color — red  infiltration — rich  in  blood,  softened,  emphysematous, 
crepitating,  and  of  a  peculiar  sweetish,  sickly  odor.  (This  odor  of 
the  flesh  in  this  disease  is  very  striking,  but  can  not  be  well  de- 
scribed.) The  blood  which  oozed  out  of  the  vessels  was  black, 
viscid,  and  tar-like. 

"The  above-mentioned  lymph-glands  were  swollen,  soft,  and 
full  of  blood. 

"  The  abdominal  cavity  contained  a  reddish-black,  peculiar-smell- 
ing exudation.  Peritoneum  clean,  lustrous,  and  smooth.  In  the  vi- 
cinity of  the  kidneys  was  a  tumefaction  filled  with  a  yellow,  gelatino- 
haemorrhagic  infiltration.  Omentum  infiltrated  here  and  there  as 
above.  The  contents  of  the  rumen  soft,  the  epithelium,  or  rather 
the  mucous  membrane,  frequently  peeling  off  and  attached  to  the 
ingesta.  Reticulum  filled  with  soft  ingesta ;  epithelium  intact, 
without  injection  of  the  vessels.  Contents  of  the  omasum  firm. 
Abomasum  filled  with  a  reddish-brown  fluid,  the  contents  having  a 
fetid  odor ;  epithelium  adherent ;  mucosa  swollen,  dotted  with 
ecchymoses  and  hsemorrhagic  infiltrations,  or  rather  diffuse  ligemor- 
rhagic  centers.  At  the  beginning  of  the  ileum  was  to  be  seen  a 
very  much  contracted  portion  one  decimetre  long,  of  a  diffuse  dark- 
red  color ;  the  walls  were  thickened ;  the  epithelium  desquamated, 
and  the  underlying  sinuses  exposed.     This  portion  of  the  intestine 


INFECTION.  127 

was  filled  with  a  blackish  couguluia.  Many  other  portions  of  the 
intestine  were  the  seat  of  diffuse  red  intiltration  and  eechynioses. 
The  epithelium  was  loose  and  easily  detached  ;  the  contents  of  the 
intestines  in  tjjeneral  of  a  yellowish-red  colur,  creamy,  and  full  of  ^a&- 
globules.  ^«othing  particular  to  be  remarked  in  the  large  intestines. 
Kectum  stained  dark  red  in  luuny  places ;  fieccs  wateiy  and  green 
in  color. 

"The  spleen  was  enlarged  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  times  its 
normal  size  ;  of  a  dark-brown  color  outwardly ;  inwardly  almost 
black,  soft,  and  disorganized.  Liver  dark  red  in  color,  swollen,  and 
full  of  blood.  The  blood  was  coagulated  in  the  large  hepatic  ves- 
sels ;  kidneys,  bladder,  and  testicles  offered  nothing  very  abnormal. 

"The  thoracic  cavity  contained  a  small  amount  of  a  sero-ha*mor- 
rhagic  exudation.  The  left  costal  pleura  presented  ingested  vessels, 
circumscribed  red  infiltrations  and  ecchymoses.  Both  lungs  filled 
with  blood,  but  contained  air  in  all  parts ;  here  and  there  dark-red 
spots.  The  pericardial  sac  contained  a  small  amount  of  clear  serum 
(the  normal  quantity  is  somewhat  less  than  a  tablespoonful,  about 
ten  grammes);  the  muscles  of  the  heart  of  a  dark-red  color,  with 
here  and  there  dark  striations.  The  ventricles  contained  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  a  dark,  black-red  fluid  and  some  coagulum ; 
yellow  sero-h{emorrhagic  infiltrations  into  retro-pharyngeal  and  laryn- 
geal spaces. 

"  Microscopic  examination  : 

"  a.  The  blood  from  the  heart  contained,  aside  from  the  blood- 
cells,  numerous  micrococci  and  long,  straight,  and  delicate  movable 
bacteria,  from  0*005  to  O'Ol  millimetre  in  length. 

"J.  The  spleen  contained  the  same  parasitic  objects  in  addition 
to  its  usual  elements ;  also  the  ingesta. 

"r.  These  bacteria  were  also  numerously  represented  in  the 
eero-hajmorrhagic  infiltrations  and  the  dark  stained  j)arts  of  the 
muscles."' 

Feser  gives  the  following  resume  with  reference  to  his  observa- 
tions and  experiments : 

The  disease  known  as  llauschbrand  presents  similar  phenomena 
wherever  it  appears.  The  animals  look  as  if  the  cutis  had  been 
blown  up,  and  crepitation  may  be  heard  and  felt  on  parsing  the 
hand  over  any  such  parts.  The  gas  from  these  emphysematous 
tumefactions  burns  with  a  pale-greenish  color. 

The  disease  is  confined  to  localities,  and  appears  with  varying 
constancy  each  year,  causing  with  anthi-ax  the  chief  losses  of  herds- 
men.   The  disease  appears  especially  in  the  summer  and  fall  months. 


128  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  AXIMALS. 

Young  animals  are  far  more  susceptible  to  it  than  old  ones.  In 
the  latter  it  is  a  very  rare  occurrence. 

The  microscopic  examination  of  the  blood,  iiesh,  etc.,  of  the  dis- 
eased animals  allows  us  a  Yiew  of  the  nature  of  the  disease,  for 
everywhere  we  find  the  same  characteristic — movable,  delicate  bacilli 
and  micrococci. 

The  disease,  in  all  probability,  must  be  looked  uj^on  as  an  acute 
putrid  infection.  Numerous  facts  seem  to  strengthen  this  view. 
Aside  from  the  resemblance  of  the  bacteria  to  those  frequently 
found  in  putrid  masses,  we  have  the  acute  course,  the  complication 
of  the  lymph-glands  and  spleen,  the  textural  decomposition,  the  de- 
velopment of  gases,  and  its  transmission  to  other  animals  by  injec- 
tion of  its  fluids  into  their  organisms. 

The  necroscopical  results  following  experiments  with  purely 
septic  fluids  are  the  same  in  general  as  those  obtained  in  this  dis- 
ease. 

The  fact  that  similar  bacteria  are  to  be  found  in  the  surround- 
ings of  the  animals — swamps,  stable-fluids — makes  it  almost  sure 
that  this  is  due  to  infection  from  outward  and  the  multiplication  of 
the  germs  in  the  infected  organism. 

The  disease  is  neither  contagious  nor  is  it  of  a  transportable 
nature,  and  thus  is  strongly  distinguished  from  true  animal  pests. 
Infection  from  animal  to  animal,  or  by  means  of  vehicles,  has  never 
been  proved.  The  diseased  animals  come  as  isolated  cases  in  the 
midst  of  numerous  others,  both  in  the  fields  and  stables.  Some- 
times several  cases  may  occur  among  a  herd ;  but  then  they  have 
been  exposed  to  the  same  external  causes,  and  of  the  herd  are  those 
in  which  the  inner  condition  renders  them  susceptible  to  infection. 

This  predisposition  to  the  disease  must  be  especially  emphasized, 
otherwise  we  are  utterly  unable  to  explain  why  it  should  only  oc- 
cur in  young  animals,  and  of  these  the  best  developed  and  con- 
ditioned are  in  general  the  ones  to  become  affected,  while  the  re- 
mainder of  the  herd  are  subjected  to  the  same  feed,  and  exposed  to 
like  external  conditions.  The  flesh  from  such  animals  has  and  re- 
tains an  alkaline  reaction,  while  normal  flesh  soon  acquires  an  acid 
reaction. 

The  therapeutic  treatment  of  animals  ha^nng  this  disease  has 
so  far  been  entirely  useless.  Carbolic  acid,  and  external  cleansing 
and  disinfection  of  the  animals,  should  be  tried,  however. 

Experience  has  proved  that  the  meat  from  such  animals  ca7i 
be  eaten,  if  well  cooked,  with  but  little  danger  to  the  consumer ; 
whether  it  is  justifiable  or  not,  is  another  question.     If  it  is  to  be  so 


INFECTION.  129 

used,  the  animals  should  be  killed  when  first  attacked,  and  the  flesh 
cooked  and  eaten  as  soon  as  possible,  as  the  meat  soon  suffers  putre- 
faction. 

Bollinger  gives  the  following  conclusions  with  reference  to  his 
study  of  the  disease  : 

1.  The  disease  is  neither  a  form  of  anthrax  nor  of  septic  or  pu- 
trid infectitin,  but — 

2.  It  may  be  considered  as  a  mycosis  of  a  most  dangerous  kind, 
which  invariably  terminates  fatally. 

3.  The  infectious  elements  may  be  either  endogenous  or  ectoge- 
nous. 

4.  The  disease,  like  anthrax,  belongs  to  those  forms  which  may 
be  transmitted  by  the  soil.     It  is  not  contagious. 

5.  The  infectious  elements  are  active  when  introduced  into  the 
subcutaneous  tissues,  but  also  when  introduced  into  the  digestive 
tract. 

6.  The  disease  can  be  experimentally  transmitted  to  cattle,  sheep, 
goats,  rats,  and  mice,  though  cattle  become  only  infected  in  a  natu- 
ural  way  upon  enzootic  outbreaks. 

7.  Bollinger  gave  it  the  name  of  "  emphysema  infectiosum." 
^Ve  have  now  come  to  the  consideration  of  a  disease  of  the  bo- 
vine family  which  seems  to  be  essentially  American  in  its  nation- 
ality, the — 

Texas,  Spanish,  or  Splenic  Fever. 

I  wish  it  were  possible  for  me  to  refer  to  a  really  reliable  report 
or  description  of  this  disease.  My  own  studies  have  been  made 
upon  the  report  of  John  Gamgee  to  the  Commissioner  of  Agricult- 
ure of  the  United  States,  on  animal  diseases,  and  published  in 
1871. 

I  wish  it  were  possible  for  me  to  say  one  single  word  in  favor  of 
this  report.  It  is  a  disgrace  to  the  veterinary  profession,  to  the  man 
who  wrote  it,  and  to  the  Government  which  published  it.  It  is  a 
miserably  arranged,  illogical,  and  erroneous  production.  Symptoms, 
definition,  and  periods,  are  mixed  up,  and  there  is  no  connection 
between  the  parts.  The  pathological  anatomy  is  simply  abomina- 
ble, and  one  which  I  should  be  ashamed  to  have  a  student  produce. 

*  Ilistonj. 

An  attempt  at  the  histr^ry  of  the  disease  is  made  by  another 
than  Gamgee,  but  is  of  such  a  quality  that  we  do  not  need  to  refer 
to  it. 


130  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

Definition  or  Nature  of  the  Disease. 

Gamgee  says,  "  It  is  a  disease  peculiar  to  the  bovine  species, 
•which  has  never  been  described  as  attacking  Southern  cattle,  and 
which  occurs  in  a  more  or  less  latent  form  among  them." 

I  admit  my  inability  to  comprehend  the  above  language.  Even 
though  a  disease  appears  among  a  certain  species  of  animals  in  a 
"  latent  "  form,  it  still  attacks  them,  and  we  know  that  it  does  attack 
the  cattle  of  Texas,  or  it  would  not  have  received  its  name  of  Texas 
fever. 

Texas  fever  should  be  described  as  a  peculiar  infectious  disease 
of  cattle,  due  to  some  unknown  inficieus,  undoubtedly  of  a  bacterial 
nature,  which  for  its  primary  generation  is  dependent  upon  special 
localities,  climatic  and  telluric  conditions. 

With  reference  to  its  "  latent "  or  mild  character  among  the 
cattle  native  to  the  localities  where  it  originates,  it  exactly  cor- 
responds to  the  rinderpest  of  Europe,  which  appears  in  just  such 
a  form  among  the  cattle  which  graze  upon  the  places  where  it  is 
said  to  originate,  viz.,  the  vast  steppes  of  Kussia.  It  also  bears 
some  resemblance  to  this  disease  in  its  clinical  phenomena,  as  well 
as  pathological,  but  differs  from  it  in  not  being  strictly  contagious, 
that  is,  passing  from  animal  to  animal. 

I  have  been  unable  to  find  anything  in  this  report  regarding  the 
influence  of  the  infected  localities  upon  new  stock  imported  from 
other  places  to  them. 

It  is  like  anthrax  or  black-quarter  in  that  it  is  confined  to  locality, 
and  some  pathological  phenomena,  viz.,  the  enlarged  spleen. 

Gamgee  says  further  :  "  It  is,  so  far  as  we  have  ascertained,  in- 
capable of  communication  by  simple  contact  of  sick  with  healthy 
animals ;  and,  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  terms,  is  neither  contagious 
nor  infectious P 

That  it  is  not  contagious,  there  seems  to  be  unquestionable  evi- 
dence, for  we  read  that  when  Texan  cattle  are  put  in  a  pasture,  and 
merely  separated  by  a  fence  from  other  cattle  native  to  these  places, 
that  the  latter  do  not  acquire  the  disease.  But  that  it  is  not  an  in- 
fectious disease  is  quite  another  question. 

That  it  is  not  an  infectious  disease  as  a  contagious  disease  is,  we 
freely  admit ;  but  that  it  is  an  infectious  disease  of  a  very  malig- 
nant type  we  positively  assert. 

In  this  regard  it  is  very  interesting  to  note  that  it  exactly  cor- 
responds with  an  infectious  disease  of  man,  which  is  bound  on 
nearly  the  same  localities — viz.,  yellow  fever. 


INFECTION.  131 

While  the  nature  of  this  disease  is  still  a  matter  of  grave  discus- 
sion, all  authors  unite  in  looking  upon  it  as  malignantly  infectious, 
still  the  greater  majority  deny  that  it  is  also  a  contagious  disease. 

Like  Texas  fever,  the  yellow  fever  is  confined  to  localities,  upon 
moist  regions,  and  a  hot  climate  for  its  generation.  By  south  and 
west  winds  its  ravages  extend,  while  the  cooler  winds  of  the  north 
and  east  seem  to  check  them  ;  and  in  a  northern  climate  it  does 
not  prevail,  or  dies  out  of  itself.  The  same  is  the  case  with  regard 
to  Texas  fever :  the  famous  "  northers"  of  the  Texas  plains  having 
the  influence  of  checking  or  putting  an  end  to  its  ravages,  and  it 
dies  a  natural  death  in  a  northern  climate. 

The  yellow  fever,  again,  takes  a  milder  or  latent  form  among 
people  indigenous,  acclimatized  to  the  climate  and  telluric  influence, 
as  does  Texas  fever  among  cattle ;  some  races,  as  the  negro,  are  said 
to  be  almost  exempt  from  its  ravages. 

Is^aturalized  persons,  once  having  had  the  yellow  fever,  acquire  a 
certain  degree  of  immunity  from  a  second  attack,  which  they  lose, 
however,  if  they  leave  such  regions  for  a  time  and  then  return  to 
them. 

Our ''report"  does  not  tell  us  Avhether  Texan  or  naturalized 
cattle  acquire  such  an  immunity  from  second  attacks  of  the  Texas 
pest.  Provided  susceptibility  to  infection  exists,  the  inficieus  of 
yellow  fever  enters  the  human  organism  and  causes  the  disease. 
They  are  said  not  to  reproduce  themselves  (?)  in  the  infected  organ- 
ism, but  to  act  directly ;  they  do  not  pass  from  one  organism  to 
another — contagion. 

They  retain,  however,  their  infecting  power  a  long  time,  when 
once  infesting  a  vehicle,  and  are  highly  transportable,  either  by 
means  of  the  sick,  or  ships,  etc. 

Our  National  Board  of  Health  has  given  a  great  deal  of  attention 
to  this  disease,  and  reports  that  it  is  a  locally-generated  infection, 
and  looks  upon  the  inficieus  as  some  at  present  unknown  form  of 
bacterial  life,  which  it  hopes  yet  to  discover,  and  then  to  be  able  to 
prevent  its  action. 

Tiiis  Texas  fever  exactly  corresponds  to  the  above,  and  it  is  no 
less  the  duty  of  our  Government  to  spend  time  and  money  in  search- 
ing for  its  cause,  than  it  is  to  study  the  same  with  regard  to  yellow 
fever. 

Gamgee  says  the  disease  "  is  not  infectious^  in  the  strictest  sense 
of  the  term.''''  We  assert  the  contrary,  and  will  quote  his  own  testi- 
mony in  proof  of  our  assertion,  and  to  show  the  utter  fallacy  of  his 
words,  which  will  sufficiently  indicate  the  weakness  of  his  report.    On 


132  THE   DISEASES   OF  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

page  87  lie  says  :  "  Nevertheless,  there  are  important  data  which  in- 
dicate that,  from  the  period  of  arrival  of  a  Texan  herd  on  any  distant 
or  any  defined  pasture,  jive  to  six  weeks  elapse  'before  the  disease  ajp- 
jpears  in  the  indigenous  stock,  grazing  icith  or  after  Southern  cattle. 
It  is  proved  that  animals  may  simply  pass  leisurely  over  a  road  or 
prairie,  feeding  as  they  move  along,  and,  without  remaining  for  any 
length  of  time  on  any  portion  of  the  ground  they  traverse,  leave  he- 
}iind  them  a  poison  suffi^cient  to  destroy  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  cattle 
which  continue  to  feed  ujpon  itP 

He  then  goes  on  to  give  cases  illustrating  this  statement. 

On  page  88,  he  says :  "  At  Tolono  the  largest  body  of  Texan 
cattle  arrived  toward  the  end  of  May,  and  the  disease  broke  out  (in 
the  native  stock)  on  the  27th  of  July.  One  gentleman  of  Tolono 
gave  accommodations  one  night  to  three  hundred  Texan  steers,  on 
the  25th  of  June,  and  the  disease  appeared  among  his  own  stock  on 
the  28th  of  July.  In  Champaign  County,  Texan  cattle  were  placed 
on  the  prairie  on  the  15th  of  June,  and  the  indigenous  stock  hegan 
to  die  on  the  3d  of  August,  twenty  out  of  thirty-eight  head  dying 
in  four  days." 

"  Thus  we  see  that  thirty  to  forty  days  elapse  between  the  plac- 
ing of  Texan  stock  on  a  pasture,  and  the  manifestation  of  the  dis- 
ease to  the  stock-owners  of  the  neighborhood ^ 

If  this  is  not  being  "  infectious  "  in  the  extremest  sense  of  the 
term,  and  to  the  full  letter  of  the  law,  then  I  admit  my  utter  igno- 
rance of  the  philosophical  -use  of  language,  and  logical  connection 
between  cause  and  effect. 

Still  further,  page  109,  Gamgee  says :  "  Near  Homer,  where 
there  were  4,527  Texan  steers,  which  had  been  driven  to  Broad- 
lands,  and  had  communicated  disease  not  only  to  cattle  feeding  on 
their  trail,  but  also  to  a  herd  of  Illinois  cattle  with  which  they 
mixed  in  reaching  their  destination.'''' 

Page  110  :  "  That  they  "  (the  Texan  cattle)  "  communicated  the 
disease  to  a  very  serious  extent  is  beyond  all  doubt.  ...  At  the 
time  of  my  visit  the  mortality  (among  native  cattle  infected  by 
Texans)  was  raging  at  its  highest  point,  and  men  were  busy  from 
sunrise  to  sunset,  skinning,  digging  graves,  and  burying." 

The  whole  report  is  replete  with  such  testimony.  Further  com- 
ment on  our  part  is  unnecessary. 

If  Professor  John  Gamgee  does  not  consider  the  disease  infec- 
tious, the  people  of  many  of  our  "Western  States  seem  to  have  come 
to  quite  the  contrary  opinion,  for,  in  the  renowned  Scotchman's  own 
words,  page  121,  "  stringent  laws  have  failed  to  avert  the  most  dis- 


IXFECTIOX.  133 

astroiis  and  wide-spread  losses,  and  while,  on  tlie  one  hand,  persons 
interested  in  the  Texan  trade  have  justitied  their  inattention  to  legal 
restrictions  by  declaring  them  one  and  all  unconstitutional,  instances 
have  not  been  wanting  of  mob-law  adoj^ting  its  own  expedients. 
Dealers  and  farniei's  who  owned  Southern  (Texan)  cattle  have  been 
threatened ;  they  have  been  pounced  on  in  the  dead  of  night,  that 
they  might  surely  be  found  in  their  homes,  and  there  and  then 
they  have  been  requested  to  attend  meetings  of  indignant  and  im- 
poverished neighbors." 

What  more  can  I  say  ?  Surely  mankind  never  makes  restrictive 
laws,  especially  in  this  country,  to  prevent  tratiic  in  a  harmless  dis- 
ease, nor  do  men  go  about  tearing  people  from  their  beds  on  account 
of  a  "  strictly  non-infectious  disease." 

Etiology. 

The  cause  of  Texas  fever  has  yet  to  be  discovered.  Gamgee 
says,  "  It  is  an  enzootic  disorder ''  (another  contradiction,  for  enzootic 
itself  implies  some  general  cause,  of  an  infectious  or  invasive  na- 
ture), "  due  to  the  food  upon  which  Southern  cattle  subsist,  whereby 
their  systems  become  charged  with  deleterious  principles,  that  are 
afterward  dispereed  by  the  excreta  of  apparently  healthy  as  well  as 
obviously  sick  animals." 

This  is  a  very  nice  way  of  using  many  words  to  say  nothing. 
Modern  infection  knows  nothing  of  any  such  "deleterious  princi- 
ples" which  work  in  this  way.  "Deleterious  principles"  means 
nothing.  They  might  be  chemical  in  their  nature,  which  would  be 
utterly  incompatible  with  all  our  present  ideas  of  infection.  They 
might  be  gases,  although  modern  observer  do  not  accept  gases  as 
infecting  material ;  gases  they  should  be,  to  conform  with  the  gassy 
nature  of  the  report. 

Stages  of  the  Disease. 

Gamgee  speaks  of  four  stjiges  or  periods  of  the  disease,  and  yet 
he  says  it  is  not  an  infectious  disease. 

Pathology  teaches  that  only  infectious  or  contagious  diseases 
deport  themselves  in  this  manner. 

lie  speaks  of — 

1.  The  incubative  stage. 

2.  The  invasive  stage  (an  infectious  is  not  an  invasive  disease, 
this  term  being  used  with  reference  to  the  action  of  animal  parasites ; 
hence  we  should  say  the  period  of  active  infection). 

3.  The  congestive  or  bleeding  stage. 

4.  Termination. 


134  THE   DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  AXIMALS. 

I  would  classify  the  disease  as  follows : 

1.  Stadium  ineubationis. 

2.  Stadium  accrementi. 

3.  Stadium  decrementi. 

4.  Stadium  lethalis ;  although  I  do  not  see  the  necessity  of  a 
f oui-th  stage,  as  it  is  always  but  the  final  determination  of  the  disease. 

1.  Stadium  incubationis.  The  period  of  exact  latency  or  incuba- 
tion has  not  been  accurately  determined ;  it  is  not  so  well  marked 
as  in  many  other  infectious  diseases,  but  may  be  said  to  be  from 
thirty  to  forty  days. 

2.  Stadium  accrementi.  The  period  of  active  infection — i.e.,  the 
progressive  stage  of  the  disease — is  first  indicated  by  a  rise  in  tem- 
perature. The  temperature  varies  from  102°  to  107"8°  Fahr.  This 
period  extends  to  from  four  to  seven  days,  and  should  also  include 
the  haemorrhagic  stage  of  Gamgee,  which,  according  to  him,  lasts 
from  two  to  six  days  longer. 

3.  The  stadium  decrementi  is  of  indefinite  length,  but  begins 
with  the  cessation  of  the  progressive  or  active  symptoms. 

Intravital  Phenomena. 

The  ears  of  the  animal  droop,  its  movements  become  sluggish, 
and  the  secretions  retarded,  especially  in  milch-cows.  The  appetite 
at  first  continues  as  well  as  rumination ;  a  disposition  to  lie  down 
soon  makes  itself  apparent,  and,  wherever  pools  exist,  the  sick  ani- 
mals apparently  seek  them  out  to  lie  in. 

Some  observers  assert  that  a  cough  appears  early  in  the  disease, 
but  this  does  not  accord  with  Mr.  Gamgee's  experience.  Depression 
of  the  head,  drooping  ears,  arched  back,  hollow  flanks,  with  a  tend- 
ency to  draw  the  hind-legs  under  the  body,  and  knuckling  over 
in  the  hind  fetlocks,  are  early  and  very  marked  phenomena.  The 
skin  appears  dry  and  attached  ;  the  faeces  are  not  materially  affected, 
but  in  some  cases  clots  of  blood  are  attached  to  them.  The  urine  is 
at  first  clear.  Many  cases  do  not  attract  notice  until  the  animals  are 
sufifering  from  hiematuria,  but  the  urine  retains  its  natural  color  in 
some  ten  to  fifteen  per  cent  of  the  cases. 

The  visible  mucosae  are  somewhat  anaemic,  but  a  hyperaemic 
condition  may  sometimes  be  observed,  accompanied  with  a  viscid 
discharge  ;  the  mucosa  of  the  rectum  is  frequently  congested. 

The  pulse  is  frequent ;  in  the  early  stages  hard  and  thin ;  it 
gradually  becomes  more  feeble,  and  in  the  later  stages,  as  death  ap- 
proaches, it  is  impossible  to  feel  it.  It  varies  from  sixty  to  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  beats  in  frequency. 


INFECTION.  135 

The  therinoineter  is  an  invaluable  aid  in  the  diagnosis  of  this 
disease.  The  temperature  is  high  at  the  comniencetnent,  but  be- 
comes reduced  with  the  approach  of  death  and  hivmaturia.  The 
temperature  of  the  external  parts  of  the  body  varies.  Fre(piently 
the  poll,  ears,  and  extremities  are  very  hot  in  the  active  stage  of  the 
disease.  At  other  times  they  are  cold,  particularly  the  posterior  ex- 
tremities. 

The  respirations  frequently  rise  as  high  as  one  hundred  per  min- 
ute ;  but  in  the  comatose  condition  they  are  slow,  deep,  and 
labored. 

The  nervous  phenomena  are  very  marked.  Trembling  of  the 
muscles  of  the  posterior  parts  is  very  frequent,  as  well  as  of  the 
neck.  "Weakness  of  the  limbs,  particularly  the  posterior,  is  very 
common,  so  that  many  animals  are  unable  to  rise,  or,  if  they  get  up, 
walk  with  a  feeble  and  tottering  gait. 

Listlessness  and  stupor  indicate  the  approach  of  the  end. 

The  state  of  the  secretions  is  usually  indicatory  of  the  course  of 
the  disease.  Pei-spiration  is  much  restricted;  oedema  of  the  cutis 
is  quite  frequently  met  with. 

The  urine  naturally  contains  albumen  in  large  quantities  when 
haematuria  is  present.  The  milk  secretion  is  almost  if  not  entirely 
suspended. 

Termination. — In  most  cases  the  depression  increases;  the  pulse 
becomes  more  feeble  and  accelerated,  the  respiration  labored,  and 
the  temperature  falls  to  100°  or  98°  Fahr.,  and  the  patient  becomes 
outstretched  upon  the  ground  and  dies  without  a  struggle. 

In  rare  cases  the  febrile  symptoms  subside,  the  secretions  again 
become  active,  the  urine  clearer,  and  the  patient  recovers  in  a  few 
weeks. 

Gamgee  has  seen  animals  apparently  recovering,  and  again  the 
febrile  symptoms  with  diarrluea  have  appeared,  and  they  have  died 
within  thirty-six  to  forty-eight  hours. 

Po8t-Mortcd  Phenomena. 

"  That  form  of  splenic  fever  wliich  is  most  latent  and  seen  among 
Southern  cattle  is  not  recognizable  after  death  l)y  tlie  condition  of 
the  skin,  muscles,  or  in  many  cases  even  by  the  nmcosn?,  with  the 
exception  of  that  of  the  stomach." 

The  spleens  and  livers  are  enlarged  to  a  more  or  less  degree. 

On  removal  of  the  skin,  hncmorrhagcs  and  serous  infiltrations 
are  sometimes  found  beneath  the  lower  jaw  and  neck. 

The  muscular  system  is  normal  (?). 


136  THE   DISEASES   OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

The  organs  of  respiration  are  in  many  cases  healthy. 

The  mouth,  pharynx,  and  oesophagus  are  always  healthy.  The 
rumen  is  generally  found  full  of  food  and  its  coats  healthy. 

The  reticulum  has  often  been  found  the  seat  of  red  imbibi- 
tions. 

The  omasum  is  almost  invariably  in  a  healthy  condition. 

The  abomasum,  on  the  contrary,  is  almost  always  the  seat  of  dis- 
tinct and  pathognomonic  changes.  It  is  often  found  of  a  pink  or 
dark-red  color.  The  pyloric  end  is  more  commonly  of  a  natural 
color.  Minute  ecchymoses  are  frequently  to  be  seen  studding  its 
surface.  Erosions  of  the  epithelium  are  common.  The  duodenum 
is  often  of  a  deep-red  color  ;  sometimes  its  mucosa  is  deeply  tinged 
with  bile ;  ecchymoses  are  frequently  met  with. 

The  jejunum  is  frequently  reddened,  and  circumscribed  haemor- 
rhagic  centres  are  often  to  be  seen.  The  caecum  is  often  the  seat  of 
extensive  ecchymoses ;  in  the  colon  the  same.  The  rectum  is  often 
the  seat  of  extensive  hcemorrhages  ;  the  liver  of  fatty  degeneration, 
congested,  and  heavy. 

(I  will  here  state  the  gall-ducts  are  filled  with  gall,  and  that  the 
microscopic  examination  of  the  liver  often  reveals  a  most  beautiful 
condition  of  natural  injection  of  the  gall-capillaries,  though  no  micro- 
scopical examination  of  tissues  or  organs  seems  to  have  been  made 
in  this  report.) 

Tlie  gall-bladder  is  usually  found  distended  and  filled  with  a 
viscid  fluid. 

The  spleen  is  uniformly  enlarged,  and  weighs  from  two  to  ten 
pounds.  Its  pulp  is  soft  and  degenerated,  and  oozes  over  the  cut 
sm'face.  The  kidneys  are  perfectly  healthy  (?),  but  are  most  com- 
monly of  a  dark  brown-red  color  from  intense  congestion. 

In  the  majority  of  cases  the  bladder  is  found  filled  with  bloody 
urine. 

'No  marked  changes  are  found  in  the  nervous  system,  except  in 
those  cases  where  paresis  exists,  when  haemorrhages  may  be  seen 
in  the  cord  of  the  lumbar  region  of  varying  extent.  The  dura  and 
pia  are  sometimes  the  seat  of  ecchymoses  of  variable  extent. 

Microscopic  lamination. 

As  we  have  said,  no  microscopical  examination  of  the  tissues  or 
organs  appears  to  have  been  made.  Neither  germs  nor  anything 
abnormal  seems  to  have  been  found  in  the  blood ;  but  I  am  entirely 
dissatisfied  with  this  part  of  the  report. 

Treatment  appears  to  be  useless,  yet  quinine  in  large  doses  and 


THE  DOG.  137 

carbolic  acid  in  appropriate  doses  should  be  tried  in  case  of  valuable 
cattle,  and  purgatives  are  certainly  indicated  in  certain  conditions 

of  the  disease. 

Pro2)hijlaxis. 

In  reference  to  Texas,  or  wherever  this  disease  originally  ap- 
peared, we  are  as  yet  in  such  ignorance  of  its  true  cause  that  we  can 
not  well  speak  of  successful  means  of  prevention. 

It  wouM  seem  that  the  same  rules  which  are  applicable  to  an- 
thrax and  kinilred  diseases — as  to  draining  the  land,  etc. — should  be 
of  value  here. 

The  trade  in  Texas  cattle  should  be  regulated  by  national  laws, 
so  that  no  contact  between  thcni  and  natives  could  possibly  take 
place. 

The  disinfection  of  rail-cai's,  stock-yards,  the  proper  isolation  of 
pastures  on  which  such  cattle  had  been  grazed  or  unloaded  for  a 
period  of  at  least  two  months  from  the  time  the  last  Te.xans  were 
upon  them — all  these  measures  are  indicated  by  the  report  which 
we  have  just  considered ;  and,  lastly,  our  present  knowledge  is  as 
yet  so  imperfect  with  regard  to  this  disease,  and  the  losses  the  coun- 
try yearly  incurs  from  it  so  extensive,  it  is  surely  indicated  that  our 
Government  should  institute  further  researches  in  rejrard  to  it. 


THE  DOG. 


"We  have  previously  considered  some  of  the  most  direful  influ- 
ences exerted  by  certain  diseases  of  swine  and  cattle,  or  their  prod- 
ucts, upon  the  human  race,  and  have  now  to  consider  some  of  the 
dangers  to  which  we  are  subjected  by  that  faithful  companion  of 
man,  not  to  be  less  highly  prized  but  more  carefully  watched — the 
(log.  It  is  very  doubtful  if  mankind  truly  appreciate  these  dangers, 
threatening  not  only  their  health  but  their  lives  in  too  many  in- 
stances ;  and  especially  is  this  true  of  the  dog.  One  of  the  most 
disturbing  forms  of  parasitic  invasion  is  derived  in  some  unknown 
wav  from  the  dojj. 

I'cBuia  echinococcus  is  the  name  which  has  been  given  to  the 
smallest  tape-worm  yet  found  infesting  animal  life,  being  about  four 
millimetres  long,  and  consisting  of  but  three  sections  or  proglottids. 
The  scolex,  or  head,  is  marked  by  a  prominent  rostellum,  or  crown, 
and  anned  with  from  thirty  to  fifty  liooks,  placed  in  two  rows  around 


138  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

the  base  of  the  rostellum.  This  parasite,  in  its  mature  form,  makes 
its  home  in  the  superior  (anterior)  part  of  the  intestinal  canal  of  the 
dog,  where  it  is  sometimes  met  with  in  such  numbers  that  one 
could  hardly  believe  the  mass  before  him  was  made  up  of  countless 
examples  of  this  toenia.  They  frequently  give  rise  to  most  severe 
disturbance  to  the  canine  organism,  the  animal  demonstrating  such 
furious  phenomena  that  they  have  been  mistaken  for  those  of  rabies. 
This  taenia,  or  rather  its  cysticerc  (embryo)  form,  gains  access  to 
the  human  organism,  as  well  as  that  of  many  animals,  as  the  horse, 
cattle,  sheep,  and  swine,  and  gives  rise  to  the  development  of  enor- 
mous cysts  or  sacs,  sometimes  multilocular  or  compound,  seriously 
disturbing  the  invaded  organ. 

Examples  of  invasion  among  human  beings  have  been  met  with 
among  the  inhabitants  of  nearly  all  countries,  but  most  notably 
among  those  of  Iceland,  where,  according  to  Thorstensen,  every 
seventh  inhabitant  serves  as  an  autosite  (host)  for  these  pests. 

These  cysts  have  been  found  in  nearly  all  organs.  Bollinger 
gives  the  following  percentage  of  invasions  among  the  different  or- 
gans of  the  human  body,  taken  from  252  cases  : 

In  the  liver 176  times. 

"    "    kidneys 3  " 

"    "    spleen 2  " 

"    "    abdominal  cavity 54     " 

"    "    lungs 7  " 

"    "    head 4  " 

"    "    mammae  (breasts) 1  " 

"  other  places 8  " 

Of  9,703  autopsies,  made  at  different  pathological  institutes, 
echinococcus  cysts  were  found  as  follows  :  * 

Berlin from  4,770  autopsies,  33  cases. 

Dresden "      1,939       "  7      " 

Gottingen "         639       »  2      " 

Erlangen "      1,755       "  2      " 

Zurich "         400        "  0      " 

Rouen "         200       »  6      " 

Total 9,703       "  51      " 

^Naturally,  the  great  aim  with  reference  to  this  parasite,  as  of  all 
others,  is preveyition.    This  consists  entirely  in  keeping  dogs  in  their 
proper  places — in  absolutely  disdaining  all  those  disgusting  famil- 
iarities which  are  only  too  frequently  indulged  in  by  lovers  of  ca- 
*  Bollinger,  "  Zeitschrif t  f  iir  Thiermedicin,"  vol.  iii,  p.  44. 


THE  DOG,  139 

nine  pets,  such  as  sharing  bits  of  cake,  bread,  or  other  articles  of 
food,  drinking  from  a  common  glass,  allowing  them  to  lap  one's 
face,  or  those  of  children. 

Babies  of  the  Dog. 

It  would  be  fortunate  indeed  for  the  human  race  were  this  para- 
sitic disease  the  only  one  to  which  they  were  liable  from  their  canine 
friends. 

Of  all  the  diseases,  however,  to  which  our  poor  humanity  is  lia- 
ble, there  is  not  one  which  so  calls  upon  our  deepest  sympathies  as 
that  derived  from  the  bite  of  a  rabid  dog,  known  as  lyssa,  rabies, 
hydrophobia.  (This  last  name  should  be  dropped,  as  it  is  based 
upon  the  misleading  and  erroneous  opinion  ihat  I'obid  dogs  are 
afraid  of  and  shun  water.  Numerous  observations  have  been,  how- 
ever, recorded,  by  competent  observers,  of  rabid  dogs  cj'ossing  streams 
of  water,  and  attacking  animals  upon  an  ojyposite  shore.) 

The  disease  in  man  has  been  known  since  the  early  days  of  the 
Christian  era.  It  does  not  seem  to  have  been  known  to  Aristotle, 
for  he  says  :  ''  Dogs  are  subject  to  rabies  ;  it  makes  them  mad  ;  all 
animals  that  they  bite  also  become  mad,  with  the  exception  of 
man."  The  validity  of  this  last  passage  has  been  questioned.  The 
disease  in  man  can  be  said  to  have  been  unknown,  at  least  unde- 
scribed,  before  Aristotle.  It  is  doubtful  if  Hippocrates  described  it 
in  the  dog.  Up  to  the  time  of  Celsus,  a.  d.  2^0,  we  still  find  no 
description  of  it :  it  is  in  his  writings  that  we  iind  the  word  "  h}'- 
drophobia  "  first  appearing.  The  views  of  the  writers  of  the  third 
and  fourth  centuries  (Plutarch,  Pliny,  C.nelius  Aurelius,  and  others) 
were  adhered  to,  and  but  little  enlarged  ui^on,  by  medical  authoi*s  as 
late  as  the  sixteenth  century. 

As  nearly  every  one  knows,  and  as  every  one  should  know,  rabies 
of  man  is  a  disease  which  oices  its  genesis  solely  to  the  bite  of  a  rabid 
animal,  more  especially  the  dog,  and  is  a?i  acute  infectious  disease, 
having  an  invariably  fatal  termination.  Tlie  disease  in  man  has 
been  artificially  communicated  to  animals  by  inoculation,  but  trans- 
mission from  man  to  man  has  never  yet  unquestionably  taken  place. 

As  said,  mankind  in  general  owes  its  infection  to  being  bitten 
by  a  rabid  dog :  it  has  been  statistically  estimated  that  90  per  cent 
of  the  cases  of  human  rabies  are  due  to  this  source,  while  from  other 
animals  it  has  been  estimated  that  4  per  cent  have  been  due  to  bites 
from  rabid  cats,  4  per  cent  from  wolves,  and  2  per  cent  from  foxes. 

"  Of  796  human  beings  that  died  from  rabies  in  France,  "Wiir- 
temberg,  and  Milan,  710  owed  their  infection  to  the  bite  of  rabid 


140  THE  DISEASES   OF  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

dogs,  30  to  that  from  cats,  31  of  wolves,  10  of  foxes,  and  1  to  that 
from  a  cow." 

As  regards  that  part  of  the  human  organism  which  has  been  most 
frequently  bitten,  Bollinger  further  says  that,  in  495  cases,  263  = 
53  per  cent,  were  bitten  upon  the  superior  extremities,  hands  and 
arms ;  110  =  22  per  cent,  upon  the  head  and  face  ;  and  14  =  3  per 
cent,  upon  the  lower  extremities.  The  bites  upon  the  face  appear 
to  be  accompanied  with  a  greater  percentage  of  mortality  than  those 
of  other  parts  of  the  human  body.  An  interesting  yet  horrifying 
example  of  the  devastations  and  suffering  which  may  be  caused  by 
a  single  rabid  dog  is  given  by  the  German  veterinarians  Oemler  and 
Guenther : 

"  In  December,  1871,  the  dog  of  a  butcher  showed  indications 
of  being  rabid.  It  was  confined  in  a  stable,  where  it  tore  in  pieces 
a  goat  and  two  geese,  and  finally  freed  itself  by  gnawing  through 
the  stable-door.  Before  morning,  it  had  bitten  several  dogs  in  the 
village,  and  then  commenced  roaming  over  the  country,  passing 
through  villages,  and  in  thirty  hours  encompassed  some  thirteen 
German  or  fifty-two  English  miles  before  it  was  shot.  On  its  way 
it  bit  many  living  things.  The  people  of  the  villages  became  terri- 
bly frightened,  from  the  fearful  tendency  to  bite  shown  by  the  in- 
furiated beast.  Nine  persons  coming  out  of  a  church  were  sprung 
upon  and  terribly  bitten,  one  of  them,  a  woman,  to  such  a  degree 
as  to  necessitate  conveying  her  home  in  a  wagon.  In  all,  fifteen 
persons  were  bitten  by  this  dog,  mostly  upon  the  head  and  face ;  of 
these  eleven  died  of  rabies."     (Bollinger,  loc.  cit.,  p.  574.) 

It  is  highly  probable  that  dogs  can  communicate  this  disease  in 
the  earliest  stages  of  its  incubation,  even  before  any  very  striking 
phenomena  of  illness  may  betray  themselves.  This  seems  amply 
sufficient  to  explain  those  cases  of  rabies  in  man  which  have  followed 
the  bites  of  dogs  in  which  no  suspicious  phenomena  had  been  ob- 
served, and  which  has  led  to  the  erroneous  opinion  that,  if  a  dog 
afterward  '^  goes  mad,"  the  person  bitten  by  it  will  also  "  follow 
suit,"  and  which  has  also  led  to  the  serious  mistake  of  the  immediate 
killing  of  the  dog.  In  this  regard  I  once  knew  of  a  singular  case 
of  superstition.  A  coachman  in  one  of  our  leading  families  of  Bos- 
ton kept  quite  a  number  of  bull-terriers,  and  indulged  in  fighting 
them:  he  was  engaged  one  day  in  the  so-called  "training"  of  one 
of  them,  when  the  dog  accidentally  bit  the  man's  hand.  Like  most 
of  this  class  of  persons,  the  man  was  strongly  superstitious  with  ref- 
erence to  the  bite  from  a  dosr :  he  had  heard  that  a  sure  means  to 
prevent  himself  from  ever  becoming  mad  was  to  cut  the  heart  out 


THE   DOG.  141 

of  the  living  dog  and  bind  it,  split  open,  upon  the  bitten  part.  The 
dog  was  muzzled,  triced  up,  and  the  heart  cut  out  and  applied  as 
described.  As  the  man  had  not  become  "  mad  "  at  last  accounts,  he 
probably  thinks  that  his  "  cure  "  was  effectual. 

A  few  cases  have  been  recorded  of  persons  becoming  infected 
from  non-suspected  but  already  infected  dogs  licking  parts  of  their 
persons  which  were  wounded,  or  where  veterinarians  have  been 
made  victims  of  their  devotions  to  their  studies,  at  a  time  when 
they  had  abrasions  upon  their  hands,  by  making  autopsies  of  dogs 
dying  of  rabies.  About  50  per  cent  of  the  persons  bitten  by  rabid 
dogs  die  from  this  horrible  disease.  Of  855  cases,  399  died.  If  we 
take,  however,  the  bites  which  have  resulted  from  suspected  animals, 
and  add  them  to  the  above,  the  percentage  is  reduced  to  about  8 
per  cent.     Of  1,3G2  bitten  by  rabid  and  suspected  dogs,  105  died. 

The  importance  of  the  value  of  cauterization  of  wounds  caused 
by  the  bite  of  a  suspected  or  rabid  dog  is  well  shown  by  statistics 
given  by  Bollinger,  page  618  : 

"Of  105  deaths  from  rabies  in  France  between  1850-02,  111 
were  not  cauterized  at  all,  45  too  late,  and  39  insufficiently.  Of 
200  human  beings  bitten  by  rabid  dogs,  134  were  thoi'oughly  cau- 
terized ;  of  these  92,  69  per  cent,  remained  healthy,  and  42,  31  per 
cent,  died  from  rabies.  By  non-cauterization  of  the  wounds  in  66 
cases,  the  mortality  was  55,  84  per  cent.  Consequenthj^  \chile  after 
cauterization  of  tfie  icmnids  made  hy  the  Vites  from  rahid  dogs, 
scarcchj  two  sixths  {31  per  cent)  of  the  persons  litten  die,  hj  the 
neglect  of  this  simple  process  five  sixths  {S4-  per  cent)  have  termi- 
nated tcith  deaths 

"With  relation  to  bites  of  clad  or  unclad  parts  of  the  body,  we 
find  the  percentage  of  mortality  for  the  face  and  head  as  90  per 
cent ;  for  the  hands,  63  per  cent ;  for  the  body,  63  per  cent ;  for 
the  lower  liml)s,  28  per  cent ;  for  the  superior,  20  per  cent.  As  to 
se.v,  we  find  60  per  cent  ascribed  to  males,  and  40  per  cent  to 
females. 

The  consumption  of  the  flesh  and  milk  from  rabid  animals  has 
l)een  found  to  be  without  harm  to  human  beings. 

The  ])ercentage  which  the  disease  attains  among  human  beings 
is  dependent  upon  its  extension  among  animals,  cs])ecially  among 
dogs.  In  Prussia,  we  find  that  the  average  deaths  for  fifteen  years, 
1820-'34,  amounted  to  71  yearly ;  in  Austria,  for  eighteen  years, 
1830-47,  58 ;  in  France,  for  twelve  years,  1850-'62,  24-25  cases ; 
in  Bavaria,  for  five  years,  1863-67,  13*8  yearly  ;  for  the  seven  years 
between  1868  and  1875,  18  per  year ;  in  the  district  of  Upper  Ba- 


142  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

varia,  in  1875,  8  persons  died  of  rabies.  (Bollinger,  loc.  cit.,  page 
600.) 

"  Dr.  Hermann,  of  St.  Petersburg,  gives  quite  an  interesting 
paper  on  the  '  Nature  of  Hydrophobia  and  its  Treatment,'  in  the 
'  St.  Petersburg  medicinische  Zeitschrift '  for  1875.  From  it  we 
learn  that  rabies  is  on  the  increase  among  the  dogs  of  Pussia,  and 
consequently  among  human  beings.  From  tables  given  by  him  it 
may  be  observed  that,  in  1863,  the  reported  cases  of  rabid  dogs 
were  8,  suspected  7,  while  the  number  of  people  who  perished  from 
hydrophobia  was  only  3.  From  that  year  up  to  1874  there  has  been 
a  varying  increase,  until,  in  that  year,  49  people  were  bitten  by 
rabid  dogs,  12  by  suspected  dogs,  74  by  diseased  dogs,  and  268  by 
healthy  dogs,  while  the  number  of  people  who  died  from  hydro- 
phobia was  8.  Altogether,  in  twelve  years,  2,724  people  were  re- 
ported as  having  been  bitten  by  dogs,  of  which  1,895  were  healthy, 
103  suspected,  198  rabid,  and  528  affected  with  various  diseases. 
In  St.  Petersburg  during  that  period,  25  people  perished  from  liy- 
drophobia,  and  22  in  the  Oberhoft  Hospital."  * 

The  Pegistrar-General's  report,  of  Great  Britain,  gives  74  deaths 
as  taking  place  in  England  in  1874  from  the  bites  of  rabid  dogs.f 

Hydrophobia  caused  the  death  of  47  persons  in  England  in 
1875.  The  "Lancet"  remarks:  "It  is  an  undoubted  fact  that  hy- 
drophobia has  been  increasingly  fatal  in  England  in  recent  years. 
The  annual  death-rate  from  this  disease,  to  a  million  living,  which, 
according  to  the  Pegistrar-General's  report,  did  not  exceed  0'3  in 
the  five  years  1860-65,  rose  successively  to  0*9  and  1-8  in  the  two 
succeeding  quinquennials,  and  further  increased  to  2  per  million 
in  1875.  In  London  six  deaths  from  hydrophobia  were  registered, 
both  in  1875  and  1876  ;  and  in  the  first  twenty-nine  weeks  of  1877, 
ending  July  21st,  nine  cases  had  already  been  recorded."  X 

Hydrophobia  in  France. 

"  It  is  one  of  the  duties  of  a  French  prefect  to  give  information 
of  the  particulars  of  every  case  of  hydrophobia  in  his  department ; 
but,  as  may  be  supposed,  these  political  servants  very  often  neglect 
a  matter  which  has  so  little  party  interest.  For  eight  years,  1869-'77, 
only  thirty-five  out  of  eighty-six  departments  returned  replies  to  the 
official  inquiries.  Of  these,  however.  Dr.  Proust,  in  his  own  name, 
and  that  of  Professor  Bouley,  has  recently  issued  an  interesting  report. 
Their  statements  show  that  only  one  half  of  the  persons  bitten  by 

*  "  Veterinary  Journal,"  vol.  ii,  p.  216.  +  "  Veterinary  Journal,"  vol.  iv. 

X  Loc.  cit.,  vol.  V,  p.  385. 


THE   DOG.  143 

rabid  dogs,  or  other  animals,  escape  hydrophobia.  The  number  of 
deaths  from  this  cause  during  a  period  of  twenty-six  years,  accord- 
ing to  their  notes,  was  7-iO,  or  Httle  less  than  28  per  annum.  More 
men  than  women  were  bitten,  but  sex  made  very  little  dilference  in 
the  mortality.  The  liability  to  be  bitten  by  young  persons  of  from 
five  to  fifteen  years  of  age  was  found  to  be  greater  than  that  of 
their  seniors,  though  the  fatality  of  the  bite  was  not  so  great,  not 
more  than  one  fourth,  while  among  aged  people,  from  sixty  to 
seventy,  it  amounted  to  two  thirds,  and  above  that  age  to  three 
fourths.  Cliildren,  therefore,  seem  to  be  less  readily  infected  by  the 
poison,  though  their  chances  of  meeting  with  the  accident  are  greater. 

"The  animals  reported  as  causing  the  bites  during  the  twenty- 
six  years  were:  Dogs,  TOT;  wolves,  38;  cats,  23;  fox,  1;  cow,  1; 
and  the  disease  was  pretty  equally  distributed  over  all  seasons.  Ob- 
servations on  the  incubation  of  the  disease  show  that  in  a  large  pro- 
portion of  cases  it  declares  itself  within  the  first  sixty  days  of  the 
inoculation.  Thus,  out  of  221  attacks,  139  occurred  within  three 
months  of  the  bite,  54  between  sixty  and  one  hundred  days,  21  be- 
tween one  hundred  and  one  hundred  and  eighty  days,  and  3  at  later 
periods.  The  disease  lasted  from  one  to  fifteen  days,  the  greater 
number  of  cases  holding  out  about  four  days. 

"  Cauterization,  either  by  actual  burning  or  with  butter  of  anti- 
mony, is  generally  resorted  to  by  French  surgeons.  This  remedy 
seems  to  have  a  great  influence  with  reference  to  the  effects  of  the 
poison.  In  a  given  number  of  cases  duly  operated  upon,  the  mor- 
tality was  only  35*7  per  cent ;  while,  out  of  117  persons  left  to 
themselves,  90,  or  82  per  cent,  died.  Facts  like  these  prove  that  the 
great  evil  is  not  the  number  of  deaths,  but  the  terror  and  anxiety 
caused  to  persons  bitten  by  a  strange  dog. 

"  The  moral  is,  somebody  ought  to  be  made  responsible  for 
every  dog  in  the  country."  * 

It  would  have  afforded  me  much  pleasure  to  give  some  statis- 
tics with  reference  to  the  extension  of  this  disease  among  our 
own  people  for  a  period  of  years ;  but,  unfortunately,  we  have  not 
yet  arrived  at  that  stage  of  civilization  when  authentic  statistics  arc 
critically  gatiiered  by  the  various  State  authorities,  and  in  many 
States  there  arc  no  State  boards  of  health.  Some  day  (may  it  come 
soon  I)  we  sliall  have  such,  and  the  results  acfjuired  by  the  respective 
State  boards  will  be  published  in  a  compact  form  by  the  National 
Board,  in  unison  with  the  deva-stations  caused  by  contagious  and 
infectious  animal  diseases. 

♦  "  Vetcrioary  Journal,"  vol.  viii,  p.  217. 


144  THE   DISEASES   OF  DOMESTIC  AXIMALS. 

IS'umerous  cases  have  undoubtedly  been  reported  in  tlie  various 
medical  journals ;  but  the  time  at  m  j  disposal  has  been  so  limited 
and  interrupted  by  other  calls  upon  it,  that  it  has  been  impossible 
for  me  to  pass  them  in  review. 

As  has  been  repeatedly  emphasized,  rabies  occurs  especially  in 
the  dog,  then  in  the  wolf,  cat,  and  fox  ;  also  in  the  jackal,  hy- 
ena, badger,  as  well  as  in  the  horse,  sheep,  goat,  swine,  deer,  ante- 
lope, and  rabbit ;  but  it  is  originally  a  canine  disease.  It  is  not 
definitely  known  when  man  first  came  to  a  realization  of  this  dis- 
ease among  animals.  Aristotle,  322  b.  c,  makes  the  first  undoubted 
mention  of  the  disease  among  dogs.  Xenophon,  Democritus,  and 
others,  also  mention  it.  Hippocrates,  460  b.  c,  has  not  left  any- 
thing in  the  writings  which  have  come  down  to  us  to  render  it  cer- 
tain that  he  knew  of  the  disease.  Later  authors,  however — as  Yir- 
gil,  Horace,  Ovid,  Plutarch — seem  to  have  been  well  acquainted 
with  it.  Celsus  says  :  "  When  a  wound  resulting  from  a  bite  is  not 
at  once  energetically  treated,  then  follows  hydroj)hobia,  a  most  ter- 
rible evil,  that  permits  of  neither  hope  nor  salvation  for  the  person 
bitten.  We  should  seek  to  withdraw  the  poison  by  means  of  dry- 
cupping,  and,  when  possible,  by  firing,  and,  when  that  is  impossible, 
by  corrosion  and  bleeding." 

Galen,  131-201  a.  d.,  describes  the  disease  as  the  most  fearful 
known  to  man.  As  a  prophylactic  he  mentions  cutting  out  the 
wound. 

From  this  time  on,  notwithstanding  much  was  written  upon  the 
subject,  little  new  was  added  to  the  knowledge  of  the  ancient  au- 
thors until  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century  and  the  first  of  this. 
There  is  still  room  for  much  work  upon  the  subject. 

This  disease,  like  many  others,  seems  to  be  wanting  in  character- 
istic pathological  phenomena,  while  its  clinical  or  iutra-vital  phenom- 
ena are  so  striking  that  he  who  sees  them  once  in  well-developed 
form  will  scarcely  ever  forget  them. 

The  most  important  workers  in  this  important  field  have  been 
Chabert,  John  Hunter,  Meynell,  Touatt,  Hertwig,  Magendie,  Bruck- 
miiller,  Bouley,  Yirchow,  and  many  other  eminent  scientists. 

The  best  work  accessible  to  the  American  reader  is  undoubtedly 
the  compilation  of  the  English  veterinary  author,  Mr,  George  Flem- 
ing, "  Eabies  and  Hydrophobia,"  London,  1872. 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  historic  origin  of  this  disease,  it 
like  many  other  contagious  diseases  does  not  originate  spontane- 
ously, but  in  our  day  owes  its  origin  to  the  bite  of  the  rabid  animal, 
especially  the  dog,  and  owes  its  extension  to  this  means  alone.     It 


TUE   DOG.  145 

deserves  repeatiiiij; :  rcibies  does  not  arise  »pontaneoushj^  it  does  not 
originate  from  nothing. 

All  sorts  of  theories  luive  been  adopted  and  found  numerous  de- 
fenders, to  sink  again  into  oblivion.  Among  them  may  be  men- 
tioned the  intiuences  of  extreme  beat,  extreme  cold,  want  of  water, 
domestication,  training,  continement,  too  much  ease  and  petting, 
but,  most  ahsurd  of  all,  and  consequently  held  to  with  religious  re- 
spect, non-satisfaction  of  the  sexual  desires. 

AVhat  has  not  been  laid  to  this  last  cause  by  an  absurdly  ignorant 
and  supei'stitious  hunumity  i 

Every  form  of  mental  or  nervous  excitement,  superabundance 
of  spirits,  depression  of  spirits,  poor  appetite,  a  good  appetite,  too 
much  desire  for  sleep,  want  of  sleep,  good  spirits,  evil  spirits,  ill 
temper,  and  about  every  ill  which  could  be  hypothetically  connected 
with  the  sexual  organs,  has  been  attributed  to  abuse  or  non-exercise 
of  their  functions. 

I  by  no  means  wish  it  to  be  understood  that  there  is  not  a  most 
intimate  connection  between  the  sexual  organs  and  numy  nervous 
centres,  but  I  must  affirm  that  many  of  the  things  attributed  to  their 
influence  is  most  absurd  nonsense. 

The  medical  profession  seem  not  only  too  willing  to  support  and 
favor  this  unfounded  superstition,  which  has  been  nourished  by 
man  since  history's  beginning. 

Man's  selfishness  has  been  fostered  at  the  cost  of  woman's  happi- 
ness and  health,  and  the  medical  profession  has  done  its  part  to  su])- 
port  it. 

One  would  think  the  science  of  comparative  physiology  did  not 
exist,  or  that  its  teachings  were  a  myth. 

Blind  fools  seeking  to  lead  an  equally  blind  humanity  !  "  Pluck 
the  mote  out  of  thine  own  eye  before  thou  seekest  to  remove  the 
beam  from  thy  brother's  eye." 

Some  day.,  when  what  Ilaeckel  calls  ^^ physiogenie^''^  or  wluit  1 
would  prefer  to  call  funciio-getiesis,  or  thi  genesis  of  the  physio- 
h>gical  functions^  becomes  a  naked  and  cold-blooded  part  <f  com- 
parative physiology^  and  is  taught  in  our  medical  atid  public 
schools  and  described  in  our  text-books,  the  world  will  learn  and 
know  that  no  functions  are  given  to  contribute  to  mans  pleasure 
or  selfishness  ;  hut  thai,  when  pleasure  is  united  with  the  exercise 
of  the  physioh^gical  functions,  it  is  for  the  proper  action  of  those 
functions,  and  not  for  the  sensual  gratifiA:ation  of  a  conceited  nu;m- 
ber  of  the  animal  creation.  It  may  be  axiomatically  asserted,  and 
it  is  time  that  mankind  should  learn  it,  that  man  has  no  functions 

10 


146  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  AKIMALS. 

which  he  enjoys  in  common  with  the  remainder  of  the  animal  world 
for  any  other  2yurj)0se  than  they  are  made  to  fulfill  in  the  lower 
amAmals. 

The  doctrine,  or  rather  the  belief,  in  the  superior  position  of 
man  has  been  altogether  too  much  extended.  The  j^leasure  united 
with  the  enjoyment  of  functions  is  an  attribute,  as  I  have  said,  to 
their  physiologic  action,  and  is  no  special  gift  to  man. 

Whoever  heard  of  a  person  taking  pleasure  in  eating  with  a 
severe  toothache  or  a  sore-throat  ? 

The  pleasure  of  taste  is  united  to  the  functions  of  mastication, 
not  that  man  7nay  enjoy  the  blessings  which  the  Lord  has  given 
him,  but  that  the  food  may  remain  so  long  in  the  mouth  that  it  may 
be  made  small,  and  the  starch  in  it  so  much  changed  into  dextrin 
and  sugar  as  to  fit  it  in  part  for  absorption  by  the  organs  for  that 
purpose  situated  deeper  down. 

This  fact  is  not  stated  in  any  physiology  written  by  man.  The 
chemical  changes  are,  of  course,  carefully  dehneated,  but  the  "  words 
between  the  lines"  seem  to  have  entirely  escaped  physiologists  and 
medical  men.  "Were  this  not  so,  did  mankind  and  the  ruminants 
and  some  other  animals  not  take  pleasure  in  mastication,  they  would 
bolt  their  food  like  a  dog.     Some  men  do ! 

A  second  axiom  is,  that  where  functions  do  not  exist,  or  are 
rudimentary,  either  in  individuals  or  species,  certain  anatomical, 
structural  differences  exist  in  such  organs  which,  while  we  may  not 
be  able  at  present  to  demonstrate  their  existence,  will  surely  not  es- 
cape the  observation  of  scientists  in  the  future. 

In  this  regard  I  hold  that  the  organs  of  taste  are  either  not  de- 
veloped or  very  rudimentary  in  the  dog,  which  bolts  its  food,  the 
sensation  of  emptiness  (hunger)  being  uppermost. 

It  would  be  extremely  interesting  to  ascei'tain  if  the  organs  upon 
which  taste  depends  slowly  atrophy  and  become  rudimentary  in 
human  beings  who  have  acquired  this  natural  attribute  of  the  canine 
family — that  is,  bolting  their  food. 

To  return  to  our  subject. 

Radi  and  Bourgelat  subjected  dogs  to  starvation  in  order  to  see 
if  rabies  would  develop  itself ;  but  their  experiments  were  followed 
only  by  negative  results.  Menecier  received  similar  results  from 
subjecting  dogs  for  a  long-continued  period  to  poor  food  and  care. 
Pillwax,  of  Yienna,  observed  that  a  larger  percentage  of  rabid  dogs 
came  from  the  homes  of  wealthy  or  well-to-do  owners.  As  to  the 
influence  which  has  been  hypothetically  attributed  to  sex,  the  differ- 
ence falls  away  when  we  consider  for  a  moment  the  great  disparity 


THE  DOG.  14:7 

which  exists  between  the  number  of  male  and  female  dogs.  The 
same  is  true  with  reference  to  the  sup])Osed  favomhie  injlnences  of 
cast  nit  ion. 

Schraeder  gives  the  proportion  of  207  cases  of  canine  rabies  at 
Hamburg,  in  the  years  1852-'53,  as  25G  males,  10  fenuiles,  and  1 
castrated  dog. 

AVhen  we  take  into  consideration  the  exceedingly  high  stage  of 
development  which  is  enjoyed  by  the  nervous  system  of  the  canine 
race,  and  the  great  want  of  scientific  knowledge  with  reference  to  the 
psychical  diseases  of  the  same,  it  does  not  appear  strange  that  many 
diseases,  the  true  cause  of  which  must  be  sought  in  disturbances  of 
nervous  centres,  have  beeu,  and  still  are,  mistaken  for  rabies.  Nearly 
every  uneducated  and  casual  observer  would  be  excused,  considering 
the  want  of  knowledge  on  these  points,  if  he  mistook  a  series  of  e])i- 
leptic  attacks,  or  the  phenomena  caused  by  inflammatory  processes 
in  the  brain  or  its  meninges  (the  membranes  inclosing  the  brain), 
for  rabies.  In  the  last  case,  the  phenomena  displayed  would  be 
suthcient  to  warrant  the  educated  veterinarian  to  isolate  and  secure- 
ly confine  a  dog  in  which  they  were  present,  so  little  is  our  knowledge 
upon  this  subject. 

We  will  again  repeat  that  rabies,  like  all  other  known  contagious 
diseases,  never  generates  spontaneously,  hut  thpourjh  infection  ;  that 
18,  the  inoculation  or  transmission  of  an  infectious  element  from  a 
diseased  organism  to  a  healthy  one  is  absolutehj  necessary  to  the  pro- 
duction of  the  disease. 

All  theories  with  regard  to  the  influences  exerted  by  the  seasons 
fall  to  the  ground  in  the  face  of  the  facts  collected  by  exact  obser- 
vation. Epizootics  of  rabies  are  recorded  from  the  icy  fields  of 
Greenland  as  well  as  from  the  sunburned  sands  and  arid  tracts  border- 
ing on  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Scarcely  a  land  seems  exempt  froui 
its  devastations ;  but  it  does  not  appear,  as  yet,  to  have  extended  to 
Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  some  portions  of  Africa,  Germany, 
France,  Holland,  Northern  Italy,  and  of  late  England  especially. 

I>ollinger  gives  some  interesting  statistics  with  reference  to  sev- 
eral eruptions  of  canine  rabies  on  the  Continent : 

'•  An  epizootic  reigned  at  Hamburg,  from  1S51  to  1856  ;  during 
this  period  HOO  cases  of  ra])id  dogs  were  reported,  while  for  twenty- 
three  years  previous  not  a  single  case  had  been  reported.  In  Saxony, 
from  1853  to  1807,  807  cases  have  been  recorded  ;  an  average  of  100 
per  year.  In  a  total  of  275,000  dogs  in  Bavaria,  for  a  period  of  five 
years  (1803-07),  an  average  of  800  cases  of  suspected  and  genuine 
rabies  were  reported.     For  1873,  the  total  number  of  dogs  reported 


148  THE   DISEASES   OF   DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

in  Bavaria  was  292,000,  and  821  cases  of  suspected  and  genuine  rabies 
were  recorded.  In  Vienna,  from  November,  1873,  to  August,  1875, 
332  cases  of  canine  rabies  were  reported. 

Wliile  I  have  been  unable  to  find  any  statistics  of  a  similar  trust- 
wortlij  character  for  our  own  country,  it  is  not  without  interest 
to  know  that  "  in  1860  we  had  112,000  dogs  recorded  in  Massachu- 
setts ;  and  further,  that  for  the  year  ending  May  1,  1875,  11,489 
were  reported  as  having  killed  sheep  vahied  at  $10,584.53."  (Flint, 
"  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Eeport,"  1878.) 

l*fotwithstanding  the  repeated  publication  of  the  phenomenology 
of  canine  rabies,  still  the  subject  is  of  such  vital  importance  to  every 
dog-owner,  and  to  every  citizen  as  well,  that  the  more  frequently  it 
is  repeated  the  better  it  is  for  the  community  at  large. 

Phenomena  of  Rabies  Canina. 

The  wound  occasioned  by  the  bite  of  the  rabid  dog  heals  in  gen- 
eral very  quickly,  leaving  little  or  no  indications  of  its  presence  be- 
hind, unless  it  has  been  quite  an  extensive  laceration. 

The  smallest  abrasion  of  the  epidermis  is  sufficient  for  infection. 
This  fact,  in  unison  with  the  rapid  healing  of  such  wounds,  suffi- 
ciently explains  those  cases  which  have  been  frequently  quoted  in 
proof  of  the  spontaneous  generation  of  this  disease,  where  rabid  dogs 
have  died  or  been  killed,  and  then  been  most  carefully  shaved,  and 
not  the  slightest  indications  of  a  wound  of  the  cutis  could  be  found. 

The  period  of  incubation — that  is,  the  time  which  elapses  between 
the  bite  and  the  appearance  of  the  first  suspicious  phenomena — ex- 
tends, in  general,  to  from  three  to  five  weeks  ;  sometimes  it  extends 
to  as  many  months.  In  the  other  domestic  animals  the  period  of 
incubation  varies  from  two  weeks  to  ten  or  even  fifteen  or  sixteen 
months. 

As  should  be  well  known  to  every  dog-owner,  rabies  canina  pre- 
sents itself  in  two  forms  :  as  furious,  and  as  still  or  dumb  rabies.  It 
is  not  my  purpose  to  enter  into  minute  details  with  reference  to  this 
disease,  but  rather  to  endeavor  to  attract  attention  to  the  most  promi- 
nent symptoms  in  which  the  disease  manifests  itself. 

Writers  have,  however,  divided  the  disease  into  three  stages, 
and,  as  laymen  might  suppose  that  by  these  was  meant  three  dis- 
tinctly marked  intervals,  we  will  at  once  say  that  such  do  not  exist, 
and  that,  while  the  periods  may  be  said  to  mark  different  stages  of 
development  in  the  disease,  yet  these  stages  extend  one  into  the 
other  so  imperceptibly  that  no  intermissions  are  observable.  All 
this  dividing  the  phenomena  of  certain  diseases  into  periods  is  more 


THE  DOG.  140 

or  less  a  matter  of  artificial  classification,  to  suit  the  conveniences  of 
the  clinical  teacher. 

These  three  stages  have  been  spoken  of  as — 

1.  The  melancholic  or  initiatory. 

2.  The  maniacal  or  irritative. 

3.  The  paralytic  or  lame  stage. 

The  first  perceptible  indication  which  is  manifested  by  the  bit- 
ten or  infected  dog  would  never  lead  one  to  suppose  that  the  most 
fearful  and  dangerous  disease  known  to  man  was  in  })rocess  of  de- 
velopment in  the  favorite  of  the  family. 

It  consids  in  little  else  than  a  change  in  the  natural  deportment 
of  the  animal. 

This  should  be  emphasized — emry  change  in  the  natural  deport- 
ment of  your  dog  should  excite  your  8Ufpicio7i,  and  render  you 
watchful  and  uneasy.  No  time  should  be  lost,  not  only  in  confining 
your  dog  most  carefully  and  securely,  but  in  seeking  the  advice  of 
the  most  skillful  veterinary  expert  at  your  command.  Among 
the  chief  initiatory  symptoms  are  surliness,  uneasiness,  depression, 
moodiness,  a  continued  desire  for  change  of  place,  fii*st  in  one  comer, 
then  in  anotlier ;  now  on  the  sofa,  then  under  it :  if  naturally 
morose,  the  bitten  dog  often  displays  a  suddenly  developetl  affec- 
tionate disposition ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  generally  affectionate 
dog  becomes  morose  and  suspicious,  snappish  and  irritable.  The 
most  insignificant  circumstance  will  set  such  a  dog  in  a  fit  of  rage. 
The  eyes  frequently  give  indications  of  the  approaching  tempest, 
the  conjunctivae  or  linings  of  the  lids  being  injected  or  reddened  ; 
the  eye  itself  having  a  peculiar,  unnatural  expression,  which,  to 
be  realized,  must  be  seen. 

Even  in  the  early  part  of  its  development  an  abnormal  appetite 
is  often  apparetit,  and  is  to  he  lool'ed  vpon  as  one  of  the  mod  char- 
acteristic symptoms  of  the  malady.  The  neat,  delicate,  and  cher- 
ished pet  of  the  family  turns  away  from  the  usual  loved  tidbits,  to 
fill  its  stomach  with  masses  of  filth,  such  as  its  own  freces,  straw, 
rags,  and  the  like. 

The  sexual  functions  are  frequently  abnormally  irritated,  which, 
has  probably  given  occasion  to  the  absurd  theory  with  reference  to 
the  genesis  of  the  disease  previously  considered. 

Such  animals  are  more  or  less  resistant  to  attempts  at  control, 
and  the  once  true  and  trustworthy  house-dog,  or  the  inseparable 
lady's  companion,  suddenly  develops  a  most  marked  desire  to  get 
away  from  the  favorite  door-step,  or  the  handsome  rug,  and  to  run 
off  over  the  country. 


150  THE   DISEASES   OF  DOMESTIC  AXIMALS. 

Tlie  muscular  movements  soon  begin  to  demonstrate  a  certain 
want  of  concord ;  tliey  become  uncertain,  wavering,  or  weaker  than 
usual. 

Such  dogs  frequently  lick  the  place  where  the  wound  causing 
infection  has  been,  even  gnawing  it,  as  if  it  itched ;  but  a  far  worse 
enemy  than  fleas  is  at  the  bottom  of  this  trouble,  and  a  more  ener- 
getic remedy  than  "  Persian  Insect  Powder,"  or  great  "  Doctor  Go- 
it-cure-all's  Magnetic  Enemy  to  Worms  and  Insects,"  is  needed  to 
rid  the  poor  beast  of  its  troubles. 

Without  any  signs  of  intermission,  but  rather  with  a  gradual 
increase  of  these  phenomena,  is  ushered  in  the  so-called  maniacal 
or  "  mad  "  period  of  the  disease,  Is^early  all  the  previously  consid- 
ered j)henomena  are  presented  to  us  with  a  tenfold  intensity.  The 
whole  external  appearance  of  the  animal  becomes  changed.  The 
appetite  is  wanting ;  the  once  docile  and  affectionate  dog  is  now  a 
fiend  incarnate,  seeking  to  bite  and  tear  all  within  its  reach ;  the 
cheery  bark  of  welcome,  which  once  greeted  the  approaching  master 
or  mistress,  is  changed  into  an  indescribable  Jioiol.  The  tendency  to 
wander  from  home,  or  break  away  from  its  fastenings,  is  unbounded  ; 
the  parlor  pet  seeks  to  get  out,  and  the  chained  watch-dog  bites  and 
tugs  at  its  chain  in  its  endeavor  to  break  away.  If  confined  in 
cage,  they  bite  and  tug  at  the  bars  with  the  fury  of  a  maniac,  which 
they,  indeed,  fully  resemble.  If,  up  to  this  time,  the  unfortunate 
dog  has  displayed  more  or  less  respect  for  the  master's  presence  and 
voice,  it  now  begins  to  know  him  no  more,  although  some  cases  are 
recorded  where  the  ties  of  affection  have  even  ruled,  in  a  measure, 
such  a  canine  maniac  until  life  was  almost  extinct. 

Once  free,  they  do  not  pursue  any  regular  course,  as  if  follow- 
ing some  intellectual  perception,  but  roam  here  and  there,  often  re- 
turning home,  and  behaving  like  disobedient  children,  afraid  to  face 
the  owner's  displeasure. 

According  to  the  previous  nature  of  the  dog  is  its  inclination  to 
bite  during  this  period  of  the  development  of  the  malady,  some 
being  more  dangerous  in  this  regard  than  others.  The  slightest 
irritation,  such  as  the  presence  of  a  stranger,  another  dog  or  animal, 
the  presentation  of  a  stick,  is  sufficient  to  set  such  a  dog  into  a  par- 
oxysm of  rage ;  these  paroxysms  decrease  in  severity  as  the  dog 
becomes  exhausted  by  disease. 

Such  animals  seem  frequently,  like  the  human  maniac,  to  be 
gifted  vnth  supernatural  strength  and  energy.  Chains  thought  to 
be  unbreakable  are  ruptured  as  if  made  of  straw ;  walls  or  fences 
thought  to  be  unscalable  are  easily  sprung  over ;  barn-doors  or  par- 


THE   DOG.  151 

titions  so  solid  and  thick  that  escape  is  thoii*j:ht  to  he  impossible  arc 
easily  giunved  thruii<5h,  and  an  infuriated  tiend  becomes  loose  to 
prey  upon  the  community  and  the  balance  of  the  animal  ^vorld. 
Jlydrophoh'ta^  at' fear  of  water,  is  never  seen  in  tlui  d(><j,  public.  ()])in- 
iou  to  the  contrary.  During  my  stay  at  the  lioyal  \'eterinary  In- 
stitute of  Berlin,  I  had  quite  a  number  of  opportunities  for  observ- 
ing rabid  dogs,  and  have  frequently  seen  them  bury  their  noses  in 
the  dish  of  water  in  their  cages,  in  their  vain  attem])ts  to  drink, 
which  the  paralytic  condition  of  the  muscles  of  degkitition  rendered 
absolutely  impossible. 

As  all  severe  exertions  must  have  an  end,  so  in  this  disease  these 
maniacal  phenomena  gradually  pass  over  into  those  of  the  paralytic 
form  ;  the  paroxysms  slowly  become  weaker,  and  the  remissions  less 
and  less  perceptible. 

The  suffering  and  pitiable  animal  has  become  greatly  emaciated ; 
the  once  lustrous  coat  dull  and  staring ;  the  plump  and  rounded 
Hanks  sunken ;  the  bright  and  intelligent  eye  becomes  dull  and 
expressionless;  the  tongue  protrudes  from  the  mouth,  appearing 
more  like  half-dried  leather  than  a  normal  tonjnie. 

Slowly  but  surely  the  weakness  extends  over  the  organism.  The 
gait  becomes  weaker  and  weaker ;  the  hind-legs  waver  from  side  to 
side,  until  finally,  overcome  by  weakness  and  paralysis,  the  animal 
sits  before  you,  a  picture  never  to  be  forgotten. 

Some  lie  as  if  overcome  by  sleep,  but,  if  irritated,  will  rise  upon 
the  fore-feet  and  seek  to  bite  or  snap  at  the  irritating  object. 

The  voice  becomes  hoarser  and  hoarser,  the  attempts  to  breathe 
are  painful  in  the  extreme  to  look  upon,  the  pupil  of  the  eye  is  dis- 
tended, and  all  natural  expression  is  lost. 

Death  doses  the  painful  drama  in  from  four  to  seven  days,  al- 
though in  extremely  rare  cases  the  battle  for  life  may  continue  to 
eight  or  nine  days ;  never  more  than  that. 

The  phenomena  of  dumb  rabies  are  so  similar  to  those  of  the 
paralytic  form  that  I  will  refrain  from  describing  them.  The  dis- 
ease ushers  itself  in,  in  about  the  same  way,  but  the  initiative  phe- 
nomena pa.ss  almost  imperceptibly  into  those  of  the  paralytic  form. 

This  dumb  variety,  when  once  developed,  is  not  so  dangerous  to 
mankind,  or  other  animals,  as  the  maniacal  form  :  from  the  paralysis 
of  the  lower  jaw,  such  animals  are  unable  to  bite ;  it  is  dangerous 
to  mistake  this  paralysis  for  a  bone  in  the  throat,  which  is  some- 
times done  ;  the  fluids  of  the  mouth  are  as  sure  to  cause  infec- 
tion as  those  from  a  maniacal  dog,  if  they  come  in  contact  with  a 
wounded  surface. 


152  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

Prevention. 

1.  Eeduce  the  number  of  dogs  in  eacli  State  to  the  lowest 
possible  minimum,  bj  means  of  a  high  and  rigidly  exacted  dog- 
tax. 

2.  A  quarterly  revision  of  all  the  dogs  owned  in  a  State  should 
be  made  by  the  police  authorities,  and  all  dogs,  of  whatever  age, 
sex,  or  character,  found  without  a  license  number  and  tag  upon 
their  collar  for  the  time  in  question,  and  not  an  old  tag,  should  be 
peremptorily  killed  at  a  time  fixed  by  law,  unless  a  license  is  at  once 
procured. 

3.  All  dogs  found  running  loose  without  an  appropriate  collar 
and  tag  should  be  peremptorily  killed. 

(«.)  The  police  should  have  power  to  kill,  and  not  authorized 
"  dog-killers,"  who,  as  experience  has  taught  us,  are  more  apt  to  be 
"  diOg-stealers  "  than  faithful  public  servants. 

4.  In  every  city,  town,  or  village,  there  should  be,  not  a  pound, 
but  an  animal  quarantine,  where  animals  in  which  contagious  or 
infectious  diseases  were  suspected  could  be  quarantined,  for  a  time 
fixed  by  law,  and  remain  under  the  daily  supervision  of  a  com- 
petently qualified  State  veterinary  ofiicial,  no  empiric. 

To  this  quarantine  should  be  sent  every  dog  in  which  an  ab- 
normal inclination  to  bite  has  been  observed,  and  especially  and 
peremptorily  every  dog  which  had  bitten  a  human  being  without 
justifiable  cause.  Here  it  should  be  caged  and  confined  for  a  period 
of  not  less  than  five  weeks,  and  at  the  expense  of  the  owner.  If 
the  owner  of  such  a  dog  will  not  pay  the  expense,  then  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  city,  town,  or  village,  in  which  said  dog  is  quarantined ; 
the  dog  or  dogs  in  question,  if  found  healthy  at  the  expiration  of 
such  a  quarantine,  to  be  sold  at  public  auction  on  account  of  said 
town,  city,  or  village,  or  killed. 

(b.)  Too  much  stress  can  not  be  placed  upon  the  value  of  this 
last  clause  to  the  community.  ISTo  greater  mistake  can  be  made 
than  at  once  killing  a  suspected  animal  which  has  bitten  a  person. 
The  plan  proposed,  by  ascertaining  the  real  condition  of  the  dog, 
will  do  more  than  any  one  thing  to  free  the  mind  of  a  person  bit- 
ten by  a  dog  from  the  danger  of  hysteric  rabies,  and  also  free 
the  minds  of  the  community  from  an  unnecessary  and  protracted 
anxiety. 

5.  These  regulations  should  apply  to  all  dog-owners,  whether 
breeders  or  not,  and  no  exception  to  them  should  be  made,  on  prom- 
ises of  owners  to  see  to  them  at  home. 


THE  HORSE.  153 

(c.)  It  is  the  safety  and  peace  of  niiiul  of  the  community  wliich 
are  to  be  considered,  and  not  the  pleasure  of  indiviihial  dog-owners. 

The  technical  supervision  of  competent  State  veterinary  officials 
(in  no  case  of  empirics)  is  tlie  only  coui-se  which  can  guarantee  any 
Buccess  and  protection  to  the  comnmnity. 


THE  HORSE. 


HlPPOPHAGT,    OR   THE    CONSUMPTION   OF    HoRSK-MeAT   AS    FoOD. 

HoRSE-MPiAT  steaks  !     Roast  horse-meat ! 

It  is  really  singular  what  feelings  of  aversion  one  finds  immedi- 
ately following  upon  the  suggestion  of  such  articles  of  food  in  this 
country.  "  Have  we  not  beef,  mutton,  pork,  and  other  articles  of 
food  in  such  an  abundance  that  you  need  not  bring  up  such  a  dis- 
gusting idea  ? "  is  the  next  remark. 

The  "disgust''  in  all  these  questions  is  simply  based  upon  cus- 
tom. That  which  is  disgusting  to  the  people  of  one  country  may 
be  most  commonplace  or  a  luxury  to  those  of  another.  So  it  is  with 
periods ;  the  tastes  of  difEerent  generations  vary  in  other  things  than 
fashions. 

Thus  we  see  that  hippophagy,  or  the  consumption  of  horse- 
meat  for  food,  was  at  one  time  an  almost  universal  custom  among 
the  pagan  people  of  Northern  Europe  and  Britain,  Being  a  pagan 
custom,  it  was  but  natural  that,  with  the  extension  of  Christianity 
among  these  nations,  its  missionaries  should  insist  that  not  only  re- 
ligious rites,  but  other  customs  of  these  people,  which  they  lo(»kcd 
upon  as  relics  of  heathenism,  should  be  given  up.  "We  find  these 
efforts  of  the  missionaries  supported  by  edicts  from  the  popes,  so 
that  the  practice  gradually  became  extinct,  to  be  again  taken  up  in 
the  early  part  of  our  century,  and  to  gradually  extend,  though  the 
custom  has  never  been  without  its  adherents  among  the  nations  of 
the  world. 

We  can  think  of  no  justifiable  reasons  for  such  aversion  to  horse- 
meat  among  our  people.  In  fact,  this  aversion  is  based  entirely  upon 
ignorance,  and  its  twin  sister,  prejudice. 

That  we  have  a  sufficiency  or  even  a  superabundance  of  animal 
footl  in  our  country  is  of  itself  no  justifiable  reason  for  heedlessly 
sacrificing  to  the  knacker  a  large  amount  of  valuable  food  each  year. 

One  sees  upon  our  streets,  at  any  time,  a  large  number  of  horses 


154  THE   DISEASES   OF   DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

mucb  better  suited  for  the  sliambles  than  for  work.  Poor  men  are 
often  compelled,  bj  a  tyrannical  law,  the  result  of  a  sickly  and  gush- 
ing sentiment,  to  sacrifice  to  the  knacker,  who  pays  them  nothing, 
horses  that  a  few  weeks'  suitable  feeding  and  rest  would  make 
worth  forty  to  sixty  dollars  for  meat.  Hundreds  of  so-called  weeds 
are  yearly  born  and  raised  by  farmers  and  breeders,  to  be  at  matu- 
rity simjjly  objects  of  torture  from  their  unfitness  for  work,  that  at 
four  to  six  months  old  would  pay  a  reasonable  profit  to  the  owner 
as  horse-veal,  for  the  expense  of  raising  and  breeding.  "While,  so 
far  as  we  know,  no  horse-meat  is  offered  for  sale  in  the  markets  or 
provision-stores  of  this  country  and  Britain,  it  is  fast  becoming  uni- 
versalized among  the  cities  of  Northern  Europe,  as  may  be  seen 
from  the  following : 

For  the  first  six  months  of  the  year  1877  the  horse-butchers  of 
Paris  slaughtered  5,283  horses,  donkeys,  and  mules ;  the  same  fur- 
nished 959,730  kilos  (1,919,460  pounds)  of  flesh ;  while,  for  the  same 
part  of  the  year  1876,  the  number  of  animals  of  the  same  species 
which  were  used  was  4,422,  and  the  net  amount  of  flesh  sold, 
803,500  kilos  (1,607,000  pounds).  In  1878  the  number  of  horses 
and  mules  thus  slaughtered  was  11,319,  while  in  1877  there  were 
10,619,  showing  an  increase  of  700  head  in  one  year. 

Decroix,*  a  most  enthusiastic  hippophagist  of  France,  says  that 
"  for  some  years  hygienists  and  pathologists  have  been  directing 
their  attention  to  the  progressive  invasions  made  by  tape-worms 
in  the  human  species,  and  they  have  applied  themselves  to  discover 
the  cause  of  these  invasions,  and  the  means  by  which  they  may  be 
opposed.  Notwithstanding  several  very  interesting  works,  some 
points  are  still  controverted  ;  but  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  we 
are  attacked  by  the  armed  tape-worm,  taenia  solium^  as  well  as  the 
unarmed,  ioenia  mediocanellata,  or  better,  tcenia  itiermis  /  that  the 
germs  of  these  entozoa  are  introduced  into  the  intestinal  canal  of 
man  by  the  flesh  he  eats ;  and,  finally,  that  the  armed  tape-worm 
is  derived  from  the  pig,  and  the  unarmed  from  the  flesh  of  cattle 
and  sheep.  The  former,  says  Dr.  Cobbold,  are  found  chiefly  to  in- 
fest people  of  the  poorer  classes,  while  the  latter  are  more  frequently 
found  among  the  wealthy.  It  is  well  known  that  the  larvae  of  this 
parasite  {tcenia  inermes)  are  derived  from  imperfectly -cooked  veal 
and  beef.  M.  Regnault  has  made  tlie  interesting  remark  that  the 
number  of  armed  tape-worms  has  not  notably  increased,  while  the 
unai*med  worm  has  become  more  and  more  frequent.  The  certain 
cause  of  this  frequency  has  been  considered  to  be  the  therapeutic 

*  "  Veterinary  Journal,"  iii,  p.  47. 


THE  HORSE.  155 

employment  of  raw  meat,  nowadays  very  common ;  also  the  cus- 
tom of  eating  it  raw.  The  latter  cause  has  not  been  sufHcicutly  im- 
pressed upon  the  public. 

"  Beef  and  mutton,  then,  freijucntly  contain,  in  addition  to  their 
nutritive  principles,  morbitic  germs,  the  existence  of  which  is  not 
apparent  to  the  meat  inspectors  or  consumers.  In  the  first  place, 
the  custom  of  eating  raw  flesh  must  be  abandoned  ;  roasted  flesh  is 
generally  well  cooked,  even  burned  externally,  while  in  the  intorioi-s 
it  is  in  niany  instances  still  raw.  In  the  second  place,  when  i)hysi- 
cians  have  to  prescribe  raw  meat,  the  jlesh  of  the  horse  should  be 
chosen  in  preference,  as  it  is  more  healthy  and  nutritive  than  that 
of  the  ox,  sheep,  or  pig.  The  horse,  in  fact,  is  not  liable  to  those 
verminous  affections  which  produce  the  germs  of  the  different  kinds 
of  tape-worniri  of  which  the  human  body  is  the  receptacle.  Horse- 
flesh is  more  digestible  than  that  of  the  other  animals,  which  are 
prematurely  and  excessively  fattened.  It  suits  more  especially 
weakly,  amemic,  or  chlorotic  people,  and  those  who  undergo  severe 
muscular  exercise.  During  the  first  quarter  of  the  year  1875,  1,821 
hoi*ses  were  slaughtered  in  Paris  for  food  ;  while,  for  the  same  pe- 
riod in  1870,  2,370  were  used,  an  increase  of  541)." 

Dr.  Hugo  IIel•t^^'ig,  the  first  assistant  of  the  market-inspection 
bureau  at  Berlin,  gives  a  very  interesting  account  of  the  different 
equine-slaughteriiig  establishments  in  that  city  and  the  regulations 
to  which  they  are  subjected.  He  says :  "  More  than  a  thousand  years 
have  passed  since  our  forefathers  ceased  to  use  this  valuable  article 
of  food,  which  is  principally  due  to  the  influence  of  Christian  jiriests, 
and  their  desire  to  wean  the  people  away  from  all  relics  of  the 
heathenism  in  which  they  were  supposed  to  have  lived  uj)  to  their 
time.  Boniface  III  played  an  important  part  in  this  matter.  I>r. 
Spinola,  and  a  singer  at  the  Koyal  Opera-IIouse,  Blume,  played  an 
important  role  in  bringing  it  again  into  use.  Xotwithstanding  much 
opposition,  the  consumption  of  horse-meat  has  gone  on  steadily  in- 
creasing among  the  people,  not  only  of  Berlin,  but  other  German 
cities.  A  most  favorable  influence  was  exerted  by  the  order  issued 
by  the  p(jlicc  president  of  Berlin,  whereby  a  most  exact  control  of 
the  horse-meat  market  was  ordained,  and  the  quality  of  the  meat 
offered  for  sale  guaranteed  to  the  people.  The  regidation  of  ^larch 
24,  1854,  ordered  :  ''  That  no  hoi-se  could  be  slaughtered,  under  a 
penalty  of  a  fine  of  five  thalers  ($3.75),  before  it  had  been  subjected 
to  veterinary  inspection,  and  pronounced  suitable  for  food."  For 
this  purpose,  a  legal  certificate  was  given,  which  must  be  kept  by 
the  butcher,  for  a  perio<l  of  four  weeks,  and  shown  to  the   police 


156 


THE  DISEASES   OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 


officials  at  any  time  during  that  period.  An  improvement  in 
this  resrard  has  been  since  introduced,  by  which  all  certificates  of 
this  nature  are  written  in  a  book  having  prescribed  printed  forms, 
which  are  kept  by  each  butcher,  and  are  open  to  the  police  at  all 
times. 

"  All  places  where  horse- meat  is  sold  must  be  made  known  to 
the  public  by  an  appropriate  sign,  and  no  other  kind  of  meat  can  be 
sold  from  them.  .  .  . 

"  The  slaughtering  of  a  horse,  ass,  or  mule  for  human  food  can 
only  take  place  at  the  slaughter-houses  appointed  for  the  purpose, 
and  regulated  by  the  Government." 

The  plan  of  the  book  for  each  butcher  of  horse-flesh  to  keep  for 
reference  is  as  follows : 


Number  of  horse, 
mule,  or  ass 
kiUed. 


Description    of 

same,  giving 
age.size,  color, 
or  other  spe- 
cial points. 


Date    of   in- 
spection. 


Name  of  butch- 
er, witb  num- 
ber of  license. 


6.  6. 
Attest  of  veterinary 

inspector,     with  Day  of  killing, 

reference    to    hy-  or  other  dis- 

gienic      condition  |  posalofani- 

of  animal  slaugh-  i  mal. 
tered. 


It  was  of  great  benefit  to  the  public  when  the  numerous  horse 
slaughter-houses  were  done  away  with,  and  a  general  one  instituted 
for  the  city  of  Berlin,  known  as  the  Central  Horse  Slaughter-House. 

The  increase  of  the  consumption  of  horse-flesh  in  Berlin  is  shown 
by  the  following  figures : 

1847.  .11  butchers  slaughtered  3,000  horses. 


1853. 

.  5 

686 

1854. 

.  4 

400 

1855. 

.  4 

700 

1856. 

.  4 

759 

1857. 

.  2 

367 

1858. 

.  2 

450 

1859. 

.  4 

443 

1860. 

.  4 

618 

1861. 

.  3 

519 

1862. 

.  7 

1,042 

1863. 

.  7 

1,307 

1864. 

.  8 

1,742 

1865. 

.  8 

2.142 

1866. 

.12 

3.115 

1867. 

.17 

2,911 

1868. 

.18 
Total 

4,026 

.  25,226 

THE   HORSE.  I57 

"  In  Berlin,  during  the  years  lS77-'78,  4,739  horses  were  slaugh- 
tered for  human  food.  Of  these,  74  were  condemned  as  unsuitable 
before  slaui^htoring,  and  SO  after;  of  the  latter,  20  were  found  in- 
fected with  ghmders.  .  .  . 

"  In  1877  at  Altona  1,442  horses  were  slaughtered,  of  which  ten 
were  given  over  to  the  knacker  ;  of  these,  tliree  were  condemned  on 
account  of  glandei*s,  three  suffered  from  pulmonary  gangrene,  and 
four  from  entero-peritonitis.  The  greatest  nuuiber  of  horses  are 
slaughtered  in  the  winter  months,  their  flesh  being  made  into  sau- 
sages." * 

The  central  horse  -  slaughtering  establishment  of  Berlin  is  a 
completely  inclosed  locality  covering  about  an  acre  of  ground,  upon 
which  i.s  situated  a  two-storied  building  answering  for  the  residence 
of  the  inspectors,  and  a  bureau  for  the  police  officials;  further, 
two  stables  for  the  horses  destined  to  be  slaughtered,  and  two  large 
slaughtering-places  with  all  necessary  conveniences  ;  and  two  smaller 
rooms,  one  for  the  hides  of  the  slaughtered  animals,  and  the  other, 
to  which  oidy  officials  have  entrance,  for  the  reception  of  slaugh- 
tered but  condemned  meat,  i.  e.,  such  as  was  proved  to  be  unsuita- 
ble for  consumption  after  the  animal  had  been  killed  and  dressed, 
but  not  such  as  came  from  animals  havinf;  a  contagious  or  infectious 
disease  ;  further,  for  the  examination  of  animals,  a  room  having 
almost  entirely  glass  sides,  so  as  to  give  the  greatest  possible 
amount  of  light  to  the  inspectors. 

For  such  horses  as  on  inspection  demand  the  attention  of  the 
veterinary  police,  there  is  a  special  quarantine  station,  which  is 
completely  disinfected  and  cleansed  every  time  it  is  used.  The 
greatest  cleanliness  is  observed  in  all  parts  of  this  establishment, 
special  places  being  designated  for  the  blood  and  other  offal,  and 
after  each  day's  slaughtei'ing  each  part  is  cleansed  and  disinfected 
under  the  supervision  of  the  inspectors. 

The  following  plan  is  carried  out  in  the  inspection  of  the  ani- 
mals : 

Each  morning,  from  nine  to  ten,  the  horses  to  be  slaughtered 
are  mustered  for  inspection,  their  breed  and  nationality,  and  all 
other  results  of  an  external  examination,  entered  in  the  appropriate 
book.  To  this  end  notice  is  first  taken  of  the  external  appearance 
of  the  animal,  and  then  its  temperature  is  carefully  noted,  to  ascer- 
tain that  the  animal  is  absolutely  without  fever.  On  completion  of 
this  examination,  the  character  of  the  respiratory  phenomena,  the 
visible  raucosie,  the  lymphatics  and  glands,  the  cough,  etc. ;  only 

♦  "  Mittheil.  aua  dcr  Praxi.-<,  lS77-'78,"  p.  97. 


158  THE   DISEASES   OF   DOMESTIC   AXIMALS. 

when  all  this  is  completed  is  the  official  permission  to  slaughter 
given.  It  is  self-evident  that  onlj'  horses  suitable  for  slaughter 
are  brought  forward  for  inspection,  and  not  such  as  are  hastily 
brought  in.  If,  in  a  given  animal,  any  suspicious  phenomena  are 
observed,  which  under  other  circumstances  would  scarcely  be  taken 
into  consideration,  a  definite  opinion  as  to  its  suitableness  for  food 
is  withheld  until  the  animal  is  slaughtered  and  dressed,  which  is 
done  under  the  supervision  of  the  inspector. 

If  a  horse  is  found  suitable  for  the  purpose,  it  is  at  once  slaugh- 
tered, otherwise  its  slaughter  is  peremptorily  forbidden.  The  latter 
takes  place  in  all  infectious  or  feverish  diseases,  in  emaciation,  in 
all  cachectic  conditions,  and  in  all  animals  having  suppurating 
wounds.  Animals  not  suffering  from  infectious  diseases  al*e  al- 
lowed to  be  killed  for  knackers'  purposes,  a  special  certificate  being 
filled  out  for  this  purpose.  Horses,  in  which  symptoms  are  observed 
suspicious  of  glanders,  are  either  consigned  to  the  quarantine  sta- 
tion until  a  telegram  is  sent  to  the  knacker,  or  are  given  back  to 
the  seller  (of  the  horses),  when  due  notice,  by  telegraph,  is  at  once 
given  to  the  i^roper  veterinary  police  authorities. 

To  the  honor  of  the  horse-butchers,  it  should  be  mentioned  that 
this  seldom  occurs ;  on  the  contrary,  good  horses  are  generally 
bought  for  this  purpose,  the  butchers  often  making  journeys  of  one 
hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  to  procure  them,  often  buy- 
ing from  breeders  young  horses  which  from  deformities  or  other 
reasons  are  not  considered  suitable  for  rearing.  They  often  pay 
thirty  or  forty  dollars  for  such  horses,  which  makes  evident  the 
value  of  the  business  of  horse-slaughtering  to  the  community ;  for 
not  only  is  a  cheaper  article  of  food,  of  good  quality,  offered  to  the 
people,  but  in  case  of  a  broken  leg,  or  other  misfortune,  rendering 
a  horse  unsuitable  for  the  work  required  of  it,  the  owner  frequently 
receives  money  enough  to  supply  him  with  an  animal  suitable  to  his 
purposes ;  at  least  he  does  not  suffer  a  dead  loss,  as  is  at  present  the 
case  in  this  country,  and  frequently  lame  animals  are  thus  relieved 
from  torture,  to  the  material  benefit  of  the  owner.  In  Yienna,  sim- 
ilar conditions  to  those  in  Germany  prevail,  and  the  inspection  and 
regulation  of  the  traffic  are  carried  on  with  the  greatest  circumspec- 
tion. 

The  inspection  which  is  exacted  at  the  horse-slaughtering  estab- 
lishments should  be  extended  to  those  where  other  animals  are 
slaughtered. 

Aside  from  the  great  benefit  which  the  poorer  classes  of  the 
community  derive  from  having  a  cheaper  meat  than  beef  for  food. 


THE  HORSE.  I59 

is  the  great  saving  uf  material.  Many  horses  are  each  year  killed 
and  sent  to  the  knackers  -wliirh,  were  liippophagy  a  custom  in  this 
country,  would  bring  to  the  owners  money  enough  to  buy  animals 
suitable  for  certain  work.  Horses  condemned  to  death  on  account 
of  broken  limbs  would  not  then  become  a  dead  loss  to  owners,  but 
would  bring  from  forty  to  sixty  dollars  for  food-purposes.  Also, 
from  a  humanitarian  point  of  view,  the  question  is  deserving  of  con- 
sideration. Many  a  person  has  an  old  horse  which  years  have  ren- 
dered unsuitable  f<n-  working  purposes,  yet  the  owner's  circumstances 
will  not  permit  the  killing  of  the  animal.  "Were  it  the  custom 
to  consume  hoi*se-meat,  such  animals  could  be  very  easily  brought  to 
a  fairly  fat  condition,  and  at  small  expense,  thus  bringing  far  more 
money  to  the  owner,  from  the  shambles,  than  could  possibly  be  their 
worth  from  a  working  point  of  view. 

Glanders. 

French,  Morve ;  German,  Rotz. 

History. — Williams  says  glanders  was  described  by  Aristotle, 
which  is  an  error ;  in  Aubert's  and  Wimmer's  German  translation 
of  his  "Natural  History"  with  the  original  text,  it  says:  "The  ass 
— but  not  the  horse — suffers  especially  from  one  disease,  which  is 
known  as  '  malis.'  It  at  first  attacks  the  head,  a  viscid  yellow  slime 
runnini'  from  the  nostrils  :  when  the  disease  extends  to  the  luncfs  it 
is  deadly,  but  when  limited  to  the  head  it  is  not  so." 

It  is  impossible  to  see  how  any  one  can  affirm  the  above  to  be 
a  description  of  glanders,  for  it  is  equally  applicable  to  strangles, 
especially  when  comjjlicated  with  malarial  pneumonia,  commonly 
called  influenza,  the  proper  name  of  which  should  be  pneumo-pleuro- 
cntoritis  equina^  infectiosum. 

The  tii*st  writer  of  antiquity  to  describe  anything  like  glanders 
was  undoubtedly  Apsyrtus,  who  lived  in  the  fourth  century  a.  d. 
He  united  under  the  name  of  "/xaXt?"  several  dangerous  diseases, 
while  he  describes  farcy  as  elephantiasis.  Vegetius  followed  in  the 
same  direction  in  the  next  century. 

Long  before  the  disease  was  known  to  be  transmissible  to  man, 
it  derived  a  certain  pathological  interest  from  the  assumption  that 
it  was  a  cause  of  syphilis  in  man,  due  to  improper  cohabitation 
with  maros.  This  idea  seems  to  have  spning  from  the  coeval  out- 
break of  glanders  among  the  horses,  and  syphilis  among  the  soldiers, 
at  the  famous  siege  of  Naples  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Syphilis  is 
not  inoculable  in  animals. 


160  TUE   DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

Rufus  (thirteenth  century)  gave  a  very  fair  description  of  the 
symptoms  of  the  disease;  he  declared  for  its  contagiousness,  but 
considered  it  to  occur  in  all  manner  of  ways. 

Euini  (fifteenth  century)  held  the  same  opinion.  Winter  von 
Adlers  Flugel,  a  quaint  German  author  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
had  many  odd  ideas  of  the  nature  of  the  disease.  He  describes  it 
as  occurring  in  two  forms :  the  one  known  as  "  white "  or  stone- 
glanders,  which  is  curable  in  the  early  stages ;  and  the  other  called 
"yellow,"  and  which  gives  forth  an  offensive  odor,  and  is  incurable. 
According  to  him,  the  symptoms  of  glanders  are : 

1.  The  horse  appears  as  if  suffering  for  breath  when  ridden  hard 
and  stopped  suddenly,  a  point  which  has  some  practical  diagnostic 
value. 

2.  The  material  which  flows  from  the  nose  sinks  to  the  bottom 
of  a  vessel  when  filled  with  water.  This  idea  is  even  asserted  to 
have  diagnostic  value  by  modern  writers.  Ditmar's  report  on  gland- 
ers, in  the  report  of  the  United  States  Agricultural  Department, 
1878,  says  "  it  has  some  value." 

3.  The  flow  is  constant. 

4.  If  the  discharge  is  white  and  odorless,  it  is  "  stone-glanders." 

5.  If  yellow,  reddish,  or  mixed  with  blood,  the  case  is  incurable. 

6.  Such  horses  often  have  a  "  rotten  moisture  "  coming  from  the 
mouth. 

T.  When  given  water,  a  profuse  discharge  is  to  be  seen  issuing 
from  the  mouth  and  nostrils. 

8.  The  ears  and  head  droop. 

9.  Difficult  respiration. 

10.  Cough,  and  have  tucked-up  flanks. 

11.  The  nostrils  are  cold. 

12.  Appetite  is  poor. 

13.  Emaciated  and  lazy. 

14.  The  mane  falls  out. 

15.  Such  horses  have  an  offensive  odor. 
The  disease  occurs  in  three  ways : 

1.  The  discharge  comes  from  the  brain. 

2.  The  animal  has  chronic  disease  of  the  throat. 

3.  One  horse  can  infect  others. 

When  the  discharge  comes  from  the  brain,  it  is  due  to  a  super- 
fluous amount  of  fluid  in  that  organ,  which  causes  corruption. 

Chronic  pharyngitis  often  causes  the  disease. 

From  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century  there  has  always  been  an 
active  controversy  as  to  the  genesis  of  glanders :  two  schools  have 


TlIK   IIDRSE.  101 

existed,  the  one  affirming  it  to  be  of  ;i  purely  contagious  character; 
tlie  other  admitting  its  contagiousness,  hut  athrming  its  genesis  from 
all  sorts  of  circumstances.  These  two  opinions  still  oppose  one 
another,  though  at  present  those  affirming  the  alnogcnetic  or  spon- 
taneous generation  of  glanders  are  becoming  less  and  less.  In 
France,  even  to  this  day,  there  may  be  found  many  advocates  for 
the  spontaneous  generation  of  glandei-s,  while  in  times  past  many 
asserted  the  non-contagiosity  of  the  disease.  This  was  essentially 
due  to  the  teaching  of  Bourgelat  and  the  Alfort  school ;  while  the 
Lyons  school  obstinately  defended  the  contagiousness  of  the  dis- 
ease. 

One  of  the  most  important  French  authors  of  the  last  century, 
and  the  fii*st  of  this,  and  one  who  has  exerted  no  mean  influence 
upon  veterinary  literature,  was  Lafosse  the  younger,  and  it  is  both 
interesting  and  instructive  to  read  what  he  has  to  say  upon  so  im- 
portant a  subject,  particularly  as  he  represents  the  most  advanced 
veterinar}'  thought  of  his  period. 

In  his  "Cours  d'llippiatrique,"  Paris,  1772,  Part  11,  p.  2r.3,  he 
savs :  "  The  ancient  authoi"s  knew  nothing  more  of  the  seat  of 
glanders  than  they  did  of  its  treatment.  Some  of  them  looked  upon 
it  as  seated  in  the  head,  others  in  the  lungs,  others  in  the  kidneys, 
others  in  the  stomach,  and  confounded  the  different  kinds  of  dis- 
charge; to  all  of  which  they  have  given  the  name  of  glanders." 

"  To  assume  that  glanders  was  seated  in  the  lungs  was  pardon- 
able— 1.  Because  they  have  a  communication  with  the  nose.  2. 
Because  a  discharge  from  the  lungs  by  means  of  the  nose  does  take 
place  (as  in  pneumonia).  3.  Because  the  discharge  from  the  lungs 
l)ears  some  resemblance  to  that  from  the  pituitary  membrane  (the 
lining  of  nasal  cavities).  4.  Because  glanders  is  often  complicated 
with  pneumonia,  or,  which  is  the  same  thing,  the  discharge  from  the 
pituitary  membrane  is  often  mixed  with  that  from  the  lungs.  Tlie 
ancient  veterinarians  were  less  scrupulous  in  their  researches  than  in 
naming  maladies — they  were  deceived  by  appearances.  They  were 
in  a  good  way,  but  erred  in  distinction.  To  assert  that  glanders 
is  situated  in  the  kidneys,  spleen,  liver,  or  in  the  brain,  is  contrary 
to  the  best  teachings  of  '  hippotomie.'  They  utterly  ignored  the  fact 
that  there  wa.s  no  connection  between  these  parts  and  the  nose." 

It  is  evident  that  even  this  great  luminary  of  our  art  knew  very 
little  himself  about  glanders,  and  that  his  knowledge  of  the  seats  of 
the  peculiar  products  of  glanders  was  equally  as  fallacious  as  that  of 
the  ancients  whom  he  condcnms.  But  we  will  let  him  speak  for 
himself : 

11 


162  THE   DISEASES   OF  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

"  I  distinguisli  glanders  according  to  its  nature ;  as  glanders 
properly  speaking,  and  glanders  improperly  so  called." 

"  True  glanders  is  the  discliarge  which  comes  alone  from  the 
pituitary  membrane.  It  is  not  proper  to  speak  of  any  other  form  of 
glanders  than  this." 

"  Every  other  disease  than  this  is  not  glanders." 

1.  "  True  glanders  maybe  distinguished  as  simple  and  complex." 

2.  As  primitive  and  secondary. 

3.  As  initiative,  as  confirmed,  and  as  inveterate  glanders. 
Simple  glanders  is  that  which  comes  from  the  pituitary  mem- 
brane. 

Complex  glanders  is  that  which  comes  from  the  same,  and  the 
trachea  or  the  lungs  at  the  same  time. 

Primitive  glanders  comes  independent  of  all  other  complications. 

Secondary  glanders  is  that  which  follows  on  other  diseases. 

As  to  its  cause,  Lafosse  takes  a  most  sensible  position  when  he 
says  :  "  The  primary  causes  of  glanders  are  not  known.  Some  per- 
sons think  that  it  is  due  to  some  acrid  and  acid  material." 

The  ens  of  the  disease  is  to  be  sought  in  an  inflammation  of  the 
glands  of  the  pituitary  membrane  which  produces  the  discharge. 

He  considered  glanders  curable  in  its  early  stages,  which  should 
be  treated  after  the  manner  of  all  inflammations.  When  the  dis- 
ease had  become  chronic  it  was  incurable. 

So  much  for  the  ancient  authors. 

Of  modern  English  authors,  Fleming  and  Williams  are  the  best 
kno^vn. 

In  his  "  Yeterinary  Police,"  Fleming  speaks  of  glanders  "  as  a 
special  diathesis  peculiar  to  the  equine  species." 

Glanders  is  not  a  "diathesis."  Diathesis  is  from  the  Greek 
TiOrjfii, — to  dispose  /  and  the  word  means  a  peculiar  condition  of  an 
organism,  predisposing  it  to  certain  diseases ;  as  scrofula  disposes  to 
tuberculosis.  We  may  speak  of  a  glanders  dyscrasia.  It  can  not 
logically  be  applied  to  that  peculiarity  of  the  different  animal  spe- 
cies by  which  certain  diseases  originate  in  them  primarily,  or  only 
in  them.  We  can  not  speak  of  a  measles  diathesis,  or  a  rinderpest 
diathesis,  any  more  than  a  glanders  diathesis. 

A  diathesis  is  something  inherited  or  produced.  It  is  a  weak- 
ness causing  a  tendency  to  secondary  complications. 

Fleming  says  again,  "  It  has  been  grouj^ed  with  that  class  of  dis- 
eases termed  '  granulomes,'  and  defined  as  a  malady  having  a  tend- 
ency to  the  formation  of  granular  cells  and  destructive  processes." 

Here  we  see  another  error,  which,  had  our  author  been  person- 


THE   HORSE.  1G3 

ally  acquainted  with  the  pathological  processes  of  glanders,  he  could 
not  have  fallen  into. 

Glanders  is  not  characterized  by  destructive  processes,  as  we 
understand  them  in  pathology. 

In  general,  the  processes  of  glanders  have  more  of  a  formative 
than  destructive  character.  The  tubercles  of  glanders  seldom  form 
secondary  tubercles  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  but  are  generally  iso- 
lated neoplastic  growths.  Even  in  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
nose,  the  destructive  processes  are  far  exceeded  by  the  formative, 
and  the  permanent  cicatrization  of  the  ulcers  of  glanders  is  no  rare 
occurrence. 

"  Acute  glanders  has  been  occasionally  supposed  to  be  merely 
the  expression  of  purulent  infection  in  the  equine  species,  from 
the  frc(juency  with  which  it  has  been  observed  to  follow  severe 
operations,  purulent  fevers,  or  inflamed  blood-vessels." 

Glanders  is  in  no  sense  of  the  word  a  purulent  infection,  and 
when  it  appears  under  any  of  the  above  circumstances  it  was  either 
present  in  a  latent  form  anticipatory  to  their  occurrence,  and  they 
acted  as  the  causa  su^'eiens  to  the  visible  outbreak  of  the  disease, 
or  the  animal  acquired  it  after  either  of  the  above  conditions  were 
produced. 

'•  The  highest  Continental  authorities,  and  those  who  have  most 
attentively  studied  the  etiology  of  the  afifection,  afe  ahsoluUly  unani- 
mous in  their  opinion  as  to  its  being  at  times  directly  developed 
and  without  contagion  having  anything  to  do  with  it." 

It  is  surprising  that  a  man  of  ^[r.  Fleming's  erudition  could  write 
such  as  the  above,  for,  in  18G8,  long  before  his  book  appeared^ 
Gerlach,  no  second-rate  authority,  had  come  out  absolutely  for  the 
strictly  contagious  nature  of  glanders ;  and  his  opinion  had  been 
adopted  by  the  most  eminent  Germans  at  the  time  of  Mr.  Fleming's 
publication. 

An  equally  fallacious  opinion  is,  that  "  it  appears  among  horses 
when  unduly  exposed,  poorly  fed  or  watered,  etc.,  as  in  the  army 
at  times,  or  where  hygienic  measures  are  neglected,  and  the  laws  of 
health  ignored ;  or  in  large  towns,  or  in  large  establishments,  if  the 
horses  are  suddenly  called  upon  to  undergo  severe  exertion  during 
bad  weather  and  upon  an  insuflScient  allowance  of  food  or  forage 
of  an  unsuitable  character." 

Were  this  so,  then  nearly,  if  not  more  than,  half  of  the  work- 
horses among  the  p<jorer  class  of  horse-owners  would  have  the  dis- 
ease. Neither  faulty  ventilation  nor  the  most  arrogantly  absurd  non- 
hygienic  condition  can  ever  produce  of  itself,  or  themselves,  glanders. 


164  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

Within  the  last  year  Mr.  Fleming  has  given  up  all  the  above 
views,  and  joined  with  emphasis  the  contagionistic  party. 

Williams  says :  "  The  remote  causes  of  glanders,  though  not 
yet  clearly  understood,  are  often  found  to  arise  from  many  debilitat- 
ing influences,  such  as  old  age,  bad  food,  overwork,  exhausting  dis- 
eases and  general  bad  management ;  from  specific  miasmatic  or 
animal  poisons,  such  as  those  generated  in  localities  where  large 
numbers  of  horses  are  congregated  together,  even  where  the  stables 
are  well  ventilated,  lighted,  drained,  and  the  animal  well  attended 
to  in  every  way,  but  more  particularly  where  the  contrary  is  the 
case." 

Kearly  all  veterinary  authors  seem  still  to  adhere  to  this  opinion, 
but  Eoell  has  come  out  a  specific  contagionist  in  the  last  edition  of 
his  "  Special  Pathology." 

Fleming  quotes,  in  proof  of  the  theory  of  spontaneous  generation 
of  glanders  (spontaneous  means  the  development  of  something  out 
of  nothing),  the  well-known  extension  of  glanders  among  horses  of 
armies  during  campaigns,  as  illustrated  by  the  late  Franco-German 
War,  and  other  such  experiences. 

It  would  seem  as  if  the  whole  veterinary  profession  had  never 
had  eyes  or  brains,  or  else  this  manner  of  extension  would  never  re- 
quire the  theory  of  spontaneous  generation  to  support  it.  One  would 
think  that  pulmonary  and  constitutional  glanders  was  as  much  a 
myth  to  the  veterinarians  of  the  day  as  it  was  to  Lafosse  at  the 
end  of  the  last  century,  who  ridiculed  any  form  of  true  glanders 
other  than  nasal. 

Lesering  *  gives  a  case  illustrating  the  ease  with  which  glanders 
can  occur  among  army-horses,  and  still  the  cause  be  unsuspected. 
I  will  give  it  as  nearly  as  possible  in  his  own  words : 

"When  glanders  occurs  more  frequently  in  times  of  war  or 
mobilization  of  the  army,  the  explanation  is  to  be  easily  found  in 
the  fact  that  great  numbers  of  horses  are  centered  ujdou  a  small  ex- 
tent of  territory,  and  the  opportunity  to  infection  greatly  increased 
thereby." 

"  This  assertion  is  amply  illustrated  by  a  personal  experience  of 
my  own.  In  Prussia,  where  there  is  no  want  of  mobilizing  the 
forces,  statistics  have  proved  that  after  such  occasions  glanders  ac- 
quires a  shocking  extension  among  the  horses.  The  open  nature  of 
these  manoeuvres,  as  well  as  the  known  care  and  careful  revision  to 
which  in  the  Prussian  army  horses  are  subjected,  make  it  absolutely 
impossible  that  undue  labor,  bad  feed,  etc.,  should  have  any  influence 

*  "  Bericht  a.  d.  Vet.  Wesen  im  Sachsen,"  1S62, 


THE  HORSE.  165 

on  these  eruptions.  In  such  nianueuvres,  I  once  had  occasion  to  re- 
view some  one  hundred  liui^ses  that  were  turned  looso  into  a  riding- 
place  for  the  night,  and  ran  about  among  each  other  '  pell-mell.' 
Of  the  one  hundred,  seven  were  found  having  glanders.  How 
many  of  the  balance,  the  further  life  of  which  1  could  not  follow, 
could  also  become  infected  ?  llow  different  would  be  the  ideas  of 
another  veterinarian  who  should  examine  the  balance  of  these  ani- 
mals after  the  mananivres  were  over !  AVhat  cause  could  he  sur- 
mise for  their  infection  other  than  the  vicissitudes  of  the  exercises, 
unless  ho  were  a  contagionist  ?" 

But  the  utter  ridiculousness  of  the  spontaneous-generation  the- 
ory— the  bad  air,  bad  liygiene,  and  composite  evil  theories — finds 
an  easy  explanation  when  we  come  to  study  the  peculiarly  in- 
sidious nature  of  pulmonary  glanders,  which  often  leads  to  years 
of  support  of  a  contagious  center,  without  even  exciting  the  sus- 
picion of  any  one,  especially  in  a  country  like  ours,  where  the 
average  animal  practitioners — I  will  not  call  them  veterinarians — 
know  less  than  nothing  of  the  principles  or  practice  of  veterinary 
science. 

The  very  insidious  nature  of  pulmonary  glanders,  when  the  spe- 
cific processes  of  the  disease  are  so  deeply  seated  as  to  be  beyond 
our  positive  recognition,  is  very  nicely  illustrated  by  the  following 
cases,  which  could  be  easily  enough  augmented  by  reference  to 
veterinary  literature : 

Case  I. —  Chronic  Glanders  in  the  Horse. — "A  ten-year-old 
mare  was  brought  to  the  Munich  school  by  its  owner  on  the  lOth 
of  April,  1876,  which  had  been  suffering  for  several  weeks  with  a 
nasal  discharge,  accompanied  by  some  general  disturbance. 

Status prasens. — Examination  on  seeing  the  animal:  No  fever; 
the  left  intermaxillary  gland  swollen,  with  a  node  in  it  as  large  as  a 
hazel-nut ;  the  right  less  swollen  ;  not  sensitive  to  touch  ;  the  over- 
lying cutis  not  attached ;  a  profuse  muco-pundent  discharge  from 
left  nostril ;  the  mucosa,  so  far  as  visible,  diffusely  hypenemic, 
swollen ;  some  serous  secretion  from  the  right  nostril  ;  the  mucosa 
less  red  than  that  of  the  left  side ;  an  occasional  dry  cough.'-  * 

Such  a  condition  as  the  above,  while  it  lacks  all  positive  symp- 
toms of  glanders,  justifies  the  strongest  suspicion  that  such  is  the 
case;  said  suspicion,  and  a  consequential  ])olice  supervision  of  the 
horse,  must  exist,  either  until  the  symptoms  entirely  disappear,  or 
the  diagnosis  is  confinned  in  some  other  way. 

The  owner  of  this  horse,  and  tlie  veterinarian  who  attended  to 

•  "Deutsche  Zeitschrift  fttr  Thiennedicin,"  Erstes  Supplement,  1878. 


IQQ  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIIIALS. 

his  stable,  both  declared  this  and  all  the  horses  in  the  stable  free 
from  any  suspicion  of  glanders. 

Three  inoculative  experiments  were  made  with  the  nasal  dis- 
charge, by  saturating  threads  in  the  same,  and  drawing  the  latter 
through  the  cutis  of  a  live  rabbit's  ear.  All  three  gave  negative 
results. 

Haubuer  (of  Dresden)  introduced  the  (at  times  valuable)  idea 
of  trepanning  the  sinuses  of  the  head  in  case  glanders  is  suspected, 
which  will  frequently  lead  to  the  discovery  of  the  disease. 

It  was  done  in  this  case  this ;  "  the  sinus  Highmori  contained  a 
moderate  amount  of  muco-purulent  secretion,  the  mucosa  of  both 
divisions  was  somewhat  tliickened,  hyperaemic,  and  had  a  tense  but 
jperfectly  smooth  feeling.  Not  a  single  sign  of  unevenness  could 
he  distinguished.  All  this  seemed  to  justify  the  conjecture  that  in 
this  case  we  had  only  to  do  with  a  case  of  chronic  catarrh  of  the 
sinuses  of  the  head." 

The  cavity  was  treated  by  injection  of  a  two-per-cent  carbolic- 
acid  solution  twice  a  day ;  the  same  flowing  out  of  the  left  nostril 
indicated  that  the  opening  was  still  free. 

On  the  day  following  the  operation  a  rise  in  temperature  took 
place,  39'1°  C. ;  jDulse  56,  which  again  disappeared  in  time. 

"  From  the  seventh  to  the  tenth  day  after  trepanning  the  head 
the  intermaxillary  glands  became  very  much  swollen,  but  neither 
abscess  formation  nor  resolution  in  any  degree  took  place." 

"  On  the  IJrth  of  May  the  temperature  again  increased  and 
continued  augmented  until  the  animal  was  killed.  In  the  mean  time 
the  trepan-wound  healed  completely,  and  was  entirely  closed  on  the 
22d  of  May." 

Autopsy  by  Bollinger,  May  28th : 

"Extensive  nasal  and  pulmonary  glanders.  In  the  left  sinus 
Highmori  (a  cavity  of  the  head)  a  considerable  quantity  of  yellow- 
ish, thick,  viscid,  purulent  material ;  the  mucosa  having  a  swollen, 
uneven  nature,  clouded  with  occasional  hard  neoplasmata  (nodes) 
projecting  above  its  surface  ;  the  infiltration  common  to  glanders  to 
be  seen  at  places.  The  mucosa  of  the  sinus  Highmori  dextra 
(right  cavity  of  skull)  presented  nothing  abnormal,  aside  from  a 
slight  catarrhal  swelling." 

In  the  above,  we  see  that  all  diagnostic  assistance  failed  to  dis- 
cover the  disease.  Even  the  trepan-wound  healed  normally,  and 
not  with  long-continued  ulceration,  as  is  frequently  the  case  in 
glanders,  and  yet  the  disease  loas  jpresent. 

We  have  seen  that  three  inoculative  experiments  with  the  dis- 


THE   HORSE.  167 

clKir"e  from  the  left  nostril  f^iivc  ne<!;ative  results.  Three  others 
made  in  the  same  manner  Avith  thread  saturated  with  material 
direetly  from  the  ulcerated  surface  of  the  supernasal  parts,  gave 
positive  residts. 

This  sliuws  that  even  inoculative  experiments  arc  not  always 
to  be  depended  upon. 

Cask  U.— Chronic  Gla7iders.—T\\k  case  is  still  more  interesting 
and  has  much  more  practical  value,  as  it  illustrates  perfectly  how 
one  horse  can  be  the  means  of  infecting  others,  and  yet  not  excite 
attention  to  itself  for  a  long  time.  This  hoi-se  had  been  in  the  pos- 
session of  its  owner  for  over  two  yeai-s  anterior  to  the  time  it  was 
brought  to  the  Munich  clinic ;  two  years  hef ore  this  ^/;//(?  glanders 
had  appeared  in  the  num's  stables,  and  one  horse  was  killed  on  that 
account,  the  others  being  quarantined.  These  cpiarantined  animals 
— among  tiiem  was  a  somewhat  wind-broken  but  otherwise  appar- 
ently healthy  W(»rk-horse — were  declared  to  be  free  from  the  dis- 
ease at  the  expiration  of  the  time  fixed  by  law.  No  other  horse 
was  bought  in  the  mean  time  to  take  the  place  of  the  one  killed. 

In  February,  187S,  the  mate  of  the  above-mentioned  wind-broken 
liorse  died  from  pneumonia,  but  at  the  autopsy  it  was  found  to  be 
diseased  with  chronic  glanders. 

"  Upon  this  an  active  veterinary  inspection  of  the  animals  in  the 
stable  again  took  place.  The  wind-broken  horse — which  had  a  very 
insignitieant  swelling  of  the  left  intermaxillary  gland,  and  a  slight 
pellucid,  viscid  nasal  discharge — was  isolated  from  the  others.  As, 
however,  after  six  weeks'  careful  quarantine,  no  further  symptoms 
appeared  among  the  other  horses,  they  were  declared  free,  the  above- 
mentioned  horse  still  being  quarantined."  * 

Friedberger,  who  makes  the  report,  had  this  horse  a  long  time 
under  observation  ;  he  says  as  follows  :  "  Status jyrccscns.  The  highly 
wind-broken  horse  was  in  a  comparatively  good  condition,  feverless, 
good  appetite  and  spirit ;  but  the  hair  did  not  have  tlie  same  luster 
as  that  of  the  other  horses  in  the  stable.  The  left  intermaxillary 
glaiuls  were  somewhat  swollen,  attached  but  slightly  to  surrounding 
tissues,  and  evinced  no  tenderness  on  pressure.  From  both  nostrils 
flowed  a  clear,  viscid  fluid,  the  discharge  not  being  at  all  constant 
in  quantity,  but  in  general  more  profuse  from  the  left  than  right. 
Nothing  suspicious  could  be  seen  in  the  nose  by  the  ordinary  method 
of  examination." 

''  The  first  diagnostic  aid  to  which  I  resorted  was  the  endeavor 

♦  Ibid.,  Zweites  Supplement,  1879. 


158  THE   DISEASES   OF   DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

to  produce  self-infection,  by  eroding  the  nasal  mucosa  so  that  the 
discharge  would  necessarily  flow  over  the  wounded  surface.  A 
comj)letely  negative  result  followed. 

"  The  nasal  discharge  was  very  variable,  being  on  some  days 
scarcely  visible,  and  on  others  very  profuse ;  at  times  it  assumed  a 
thick,  muco-purulent  character." 

"  On  the  7th  of  May  (1878),  I  succeeded  (by  means  of  Gunther's 
nasal  speculum)  in  discovering  a  radiating  cicatrix  on  the  septum 
in  the  superior  parts  of  left  nostril,  which  occasioned  me  to  request 
the  owner  to  give  it  over  to  the  school  for  further  observation  and 
eventual  slaughter." 

"  Numerous  attempts  at  self-inoculation  were  made,  but  were  en- 
tirely unsuccessful,  but  the  constant  presence  of  the  cicatricial  forma- 
tions in  the  nasal  membranes  permitted  an  unquestionable  diagnosis, 
so  that  the  animal  was  killed  on  the  23d  of  May,  1878." 

Autopsy  {Bollinger). — "  Chronic  glanders  of  the  nasal  cavities, 
the  superior  part  of  the  sinus  sinistra  marred  with  large  stellate  cica- 
trices ;  perforation  of  the  septum,  cicatrices  and  ulcers  of  the  mu- 
cosa, and  miliary  tubercles  in  the  moderately  swollen  glands." 

"  Glanders  of  the  larynx,  trachea,  bronchial  tubes,  bronchiec- 
tasis ;  glanders  of  both  lungs,  cicatricial  atrophy  of  left  lung." 

"  The  nature  of  the  pathological  conditions  makes  it  evident  that 
they  had  been  present  for  a  very  long  time,  the  exact  period  not 
being  ascertainable,  but,  as  is  shown,  for  over  two  years,  during 
which  time  this  non-suspected  animal  had  been  the  means  of  causing 
the  disease  in  others." 

Having  very  cursorily  looked  over  the  views  of  some  of  the  rep- 
resentative authors  of  veterinary  medicine  as  to  the  nature  of  gland- 
ers, it  becomes  us  to  endeavor  to  define  our  own  ideas. 

Glanders  is,  then,  a  peculiar  infectio-contagious  disease,  which 
occurs  protopathically  only  in  the  horse  ;  the  original  cause  of 
which  is  unknown  and  lost  in  history,  but  which,  in  our  day,  owes 
its  genesis  entirely  to  contagion. 

Spontaneous  generation  of  glanders  is  for  us  an  absurdity ;  even 
so  is  the  so-called  metamorphosis  or  degeneration  of  other  diseases, 
such  as  strangles,  influenza,  diabetes,  or  marasmus — a  condition — 
into  it ;  equally  absurd  are  the  assertions  of  authors,  that  bad  hygi- 
enic influences,  of  whatever  kind  or  nature,  overwork,  etc.,  can 
directly  cause  the  development  of  the  disease. 

Were  this  so,  we  should  have  glanders  constantly  raging  in  cer- 
tain districts,  as  an  en-  or  epi-zootic  disease,  which  is  not  ever  the 
case. 


THE  noRSE.  169 

Transmission  to  other  Species  of  Animal  Life. 

Glanders  also  occurs  in  the  ass  and  niiilc,  but  I  am  inclined  to 
the  opinion  that  it  is  orijijinally  an  equine  disease,  and  that  when  it 
attacks  these  other  solipeds,  it  is  due  to  infection  from,  or  by  means 
of,  a  diseased  horse. 

It  is  also  transmissible  to  man  and  all  the  domestic  animals,  eo:- 
cept  to  cattle. 

Sheep  arc  especially  susceptible  to  infection.  Goats  have  been 
known  to  acquire  the  disease  when  kept  in  the  same  stable  with 
diseased  hoi-ses.  The  disease  has  been  observed,  or  intentionally 
])roduced,  in  dogs,  Ciits,  prairie-dogs,  white  bears,  lions,  mice, 
(tuinea-pigs,  rabbits,  and,  according  to  Gerlach  and  Spinola,  the  hog 
also,  although  no  generalization  of  the  disease  appeared  to  take  place 
in  them. 

Geographical  Distrib ution. 

Glanders  is  fast  becoming  a  regular  cosmopolite.  "With  the  ex- 
tension of  civilization,  diseases  of  man  and  luiimals  follow  a  similar 
course.  If  the  march  of  empire  makes  its  way  westward,  disease 
accompanies  it.  "While  nearly  all  the  contagious  diseases  of  man 
and  animals  are  lost  in  history — that  is,  come  to  us  with  the  earliest 
historical  records — still,  during  this  period,  we  can  follow  their 
westward  movement  along  with  the  tide  of  Aryan  civilization. 

In  civilized  lands  the  extension  of  all  contagious  diseases  bears 
direct  relation  to  the  intelligence  of  the  government  in  taking 
means  to  suppress  them,  and  the  frequency  and  ease  of  travel  and 
intercourse. 

This  is  naturally  limited,  in  one  way  or  another,  by  the  peculiar 
characteristics  of  the  inlicieiis  (cause)  in  each  disease. 

Glanders  has  followed  the  same  course.  At  one  time  it  was  said 
not  to  prevail  in  hot  climates,  but  we  now  know  that  it  has  acquired 
an  alarming  extension,  and  frequently  breaks  out  at  the  different 
cavalry  stations  of  the  British  forces  in  India  and  other  tropical 
countries. 

Where  there  is  little  or  no  intercourse  with  other  parts,  there  is 
little  or  no  glanders,  as  in  Iceland  and  other  northern  countries. 

Tills  led  to  the  assumption  that  it  did  not  thrive  in  such  a  cli- 
mate, and  that  it  steadily  increased  as  we  proceeded  from  the  north 
to  the  south,  until  we  arrived  at  tropical  limits. 

This  is  all  wrong;  the  occasions  to  infection — with  lack  of  sani- 
tary police — being  given,  glanders  will  appear  as  frequently  in  one 
climate  as  another. 


170  THE   DISEASES   OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

"We  have  said  that  intercourse  had  much  to  do  with  the  increased 
extension  which  glanders  may  acquire — this  is  well  illustrated  by 
the  experiences  of  different  wars.  In  our  own  country,  glanders 
has  acquired  much  more  prominence  since  the  war.  In  consequence 
of  the  late  Franco-German  War,  the  percentage  of  glanders  among 
the  horses  of  Prussia  increased  (reported  cases)  from  959  cases  for 
lS69-'ro  and  996  for  18T0-'71  to  1,729  for  1871-'72  and  2,058  for 
1873-'74. 

In  France,  during  the  anti-contagionistic  influence  of  the  Alfort 
school,  especially  of  Dupuy  and  Bouley,  the  one  looking  upon  the 
disease  as  tuberculosis,  the  other  as  a  form  of  pyaemia,  and  defend- 
ing these  absurdities  with  all  partisan  bitterness,  the  disease  ac- 
quired a  perfectly  frightful  extension,  so  that  in  a  mortality  of  75 
per  thousand  among  the  army-horses,  an  average  of  35  was  due  to 
glanders. 

As  the  contagionistic  idea  began  to  gain  ground,  to  the  honor  of 
the  Lyons  school  it  always  adopted  this  side  of  the  question  ;  the 
yearly  average  slowly  but  steadily  diminished :  the  deaths  falling 
from  75  to  44:"5  per  thousand,  and  the  cases  of  glanders  from  35  to 
20*5  j)er  thousand  horses.  While  in  1846  the  French  army  lost  4-7 
per  cent  of  its  horses  from  glanders,  the  mortality  in  1864  was  only 
0*9  per  cent  from  the  same  cause. 

A  most  remarkable  and  extensive  eruption  of  glanders  occurred 
at  the  royal  stud  of  Mezohogyrs,  Hungary,  between  the  years  1809 
and  1816,  nearly  20,000  horses  perishing.  In  1812  alone  12,000 
perished.  This  was  all  due  to  the  disease  not  being  looked  upon  as 
contagious,  but  a  simple  dyscrasia,  in  accordance  with  the  humero- 
pathological  tendency  of  the  veterinary  medicine  of  the  time. 

In  London,  and  the  large  English  cities,  glanders  is  reported  to 
be  steadily  on  the  increase. 

It  is  so  also  in  this  country,  without  ant  effective  measures  being 
taken  to  prevent  it. 

In  Massachusetts  we  have  a  useless  institution,  which  bears  the 
name  of  "  Cattle  Commission,"  and  is  supposed  to  look  after  gland- 
ers, but  in  all  truih  it  looks  after  nothing,  and  investigates  nothing^ 
except  what  it  finds  by  the  merest  accident,  or  is  reported  to  it  by 
others. 

Mr.  Charles  P.  Lyman,  formerly  veterinary  surgeon  at  Springfield, 
Massachusetts,  writes  me  as  follows : 

"  Your  letter  is  received,  and,  although  I  fear  that  I  can  not  give 
you  the  data  as  minutely  as  you  wish,  yet  I  will  do  my  best  to  give 
the  outlines  of  the  outbreak  of  glanders  which  we  had  here  during 


THE   HORSE.  Ill 

the  past  year.  The  lii-st  horse  that  can  properly  be  said  to  belong  to 
the  outbreak  was  owned  by  an  express  coini)any  here,  and,  with  the 
others  of  the  company,  was  kept  in  a  livery -stable.  This  horse  was 
taken  by  a  (piaek  to  treat,  upon  the  '  no  cure  no  pay '  principle ;  the 
man  promising  to  be  able  to  bring  about  the  result  in  a  few  days. 
It  so  haj)pened  that  I  was  called  into  the  same  stable  to  see  another 
liorse,  and  while  there  one  of  the  grooms,  who  had  recognized  the 
disease,  called  my  attention  to  this  horse.  I  examined  the  horse, 
and  told  the  owner  of  the  stable  that  he  should  have  him  removed. 
My  advice  was  not  heeded,  however,  and  the  animal  was  allowed  to 
linger  along  until  it  died  in  its  box.  After  this  had  taken  place, 
the  8tal>le  was  subjected  to  disinfection,  but  it  was  too  late,  for  four 
other  horses,  which  had  stood  near  the  stall  of  that  first  named,  were 
killed  on  account  of  glanders.  It  is  perhaps  worthy  of  mention,  for 
it  shows  the  absolute  ignorance  of  Dr.  Quack  No.  1,  that  upon  the 
morning  that  the  hoi-se  of  the  express  company  died,  when  Dr.  Q. 
came  to  make  his  usual  morning  call — the  horse  had  already  been 
drawn  away  to  the  knackers,  the  doctor  (?)  not  knowing  that  he  was 
dead — a  hostler  renuirked  to  him  that '  they  had  taken  the  horse  out 
for  a  little' ;  to  which  the  doctor  (?)  answered, '  I  do  not  think  it  will 
hurt  him  any.  I  was  going  to  tell  them  that  they  might  put  him  to 
work  to-day.'     On  the  bth  of  March  I  was  called  to  look  at  a  horse 

belonging  to  Messrs. ,  whose  store  was  next  to  the  office  of  the 

express  company,  but  whose  horse  was  kept  at  a  different  stable. 
This  horse,  on  the  night  when  I  first  saw  him,  seemed  to  have  an 
attack  of  acute  pleuro-pneumonia — remember,  I  had  myself  as  yet 
had  no  case  of  glanders — however,  glanders  unmistakably  developed 
itself  in  the  next  thirty-six  hours,  and  the  horse  was  killed.  Follow- 
ing this  was  a  roan  horse  in  the  same  stable  in  which  I  diagnosed 
farcy,  and  ordered  isolation.  The  owner  M'ould  not  believe  the 
fact,  at  least  he  said  he  did  not,  and  called  in  the  services  of  another 
Dr.  Quack,  who  said,  '  The  horse  must  have  fallen  through  some 
hole  in  the  floor  and  made  his  leg  sore.'  This  horse  wa.s  then 
sold  to  a  Frenchman  for  twenty-five  dollars.  Quack  Xo.  2  treat- 
ing him  for  a  while,  and  I  lost  sight  of  him,  to  follow  him  up  about 
two  months  later,  when  I  was  called  in  by  a  woman  to  see  a  horse 
in  a  different  part  of  the  city,  and  found  the  same  horse,  in  a  mori- 
bund condition  from  glanders.  It  was  immediately  killed  and 
taken  away.  The  husband  of  the  woman  had  bought  this  horse  of 
the  above-mentioned  Frenchman  for  thirty-five  dollai*s  some  four 
weeks  previously,  with  the  assurance  that  he  had  fallen  through  a 
floor,  and  that  that  was  all  the  trouble  witli   hiui.     At  my  instiga- 


172  THE   DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

tion  suit  "was  threatened,  and  the  money  recovered  without  the  case 
coming  into  court.  In  the  mean  time  four  or  live  other  horses  that 
had  been  in  the  same  stable  with  the  second  horse  were  condemned 
and  killed,  among  them  a  fine  mare  worth  some  five  hundred  dol- 
lars. In  these  cases,  all  the  horses  had  stood  uj^on  the  same  side  of 
the  stable  with  horse  No.  2.  After  this  experience  the  other  horses 
were  all  removed  from  the  stable,  which  was  most  carefully  cleansed 
and  disinfected,  and  allowed  to  stand  empty  three  or  four  weeks. 
Since  then  no  new  cases  have  occurred  at  this  stable.  During 
this  time  the  disease  had  become  well  dispersed  around  the  city, 
and  isolated  cases  were  a  frequent  occurrence,  the  days  being  rare 
in  which  we  were  not  compelled  to  condemn  one  or  more  of  these 
animals.  There  was  no  great  amount  of  trouble  in  getting  most  of 
the  owners  to  consent  to  the  destruction  of  the  diseased  horses,  but 
a  few  would  not  consent,  and  would  quietly  sell  the  horses,  so  that 
I  generally  lost  sight  of  them,  as  they  were  taken  over  into  Connecti- 
cut, and  there  disposed  of.  The  first  one  for  which  I  was  compelled 
to  call  in  the  services  of  the  State  Commissioners  was  owned  in 
Chicopee,  Massachusetts,  and  after  being  condemned  and  the  board 
of  selectmen  notified  by  me,  the  horse  was  turned  loose  in  the 
streets,  it  being  summer,  to  wander  about  at  will ;  this  fact  coming 
to  my  knowledge,  I  decided  to  call  in  the  commissioners.  The 
horse  was  killed,  but  not  before  four  or  five  others  had  contracted 
the  disease  from  him,  which  were  also  killed.  Another  center  of 
infection  had  in  the  mean  time  come  into  existence  at  the  southern 
part  of  Springfield,  due  either  to  the  carelessness  or  ignorance  pf 
the  previously  mentioned  Quack  No.  1,  who  had  been  called  upon 
to  see  a  sick  horse  at  a  brick-yard ;  this  person  treated  the  horse, 
and  he  finally  died  in  a  small  stable  containing  nine  other  horses. 
A  few  days  subsequent  to  the  death  of  this  horse,  a  second  animal 
sickened,  and  my  services  were  requested  ;  the  horse  appeared  as  if 
it  had  some  foreign  substance  in  his  windpipe,  owing  to  a  drench 
which  had  been  given  it,  and,  while  I  was  debating  what  to  do  with 
him,  the  owner  said  there  was  another  sick  horse  in  the  stable,  that 
I  might  look  at  before  departure,  remarking,  '  D7\  Quack  says  it 
lias  strained  its  leg.'  I  found  it  to  be  another  good  case  of  farcy, 
which  let  in  light  upon  the  sickness  of  the  other  horse.  I  ordered 
the  horses  removed  from  the  stable,  and  to  be  separated,  the  stable 
at  the  same  time  to  be  thoroughly  cleansed  and  disinfected.  Five 
of  these  horses  died  of  glanders.  In  all,  from  March  8,  1878,  to 
March  19,  1879,  fifty-six  horses  have  been  killed  on  account  of 
glanders,  which  is  a  large  number  for  a  small  city  like  ours.     It  is 


TUE  HORSE.  173 

but  natural  to  afisume  that  many  cases  escaped  my  observation,  tf7i^7 
you  can  well  realize  tlie  difficulties  w/iich  a  j)ersofi  iritliout  the 
proper  authority  meets  with.  Although  after  June  1,  187".',  I  liad 
every  assistance  wliicli  the  mayor,  Mr,  Powers,  and  the  city  solici- 
tor could  give  me,  the  State  law  seemed  so  varj^ie  to  him,  that  he 
did  not  feel  like  doing  what  he  would  have  liked  to  do,  or  what 
seemed  necessary  in  the  matter.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  we  shall 
soon  have  some  better  legislation  with  reference  ti>  these  matters. 
Foremost,  it  should  be  80})ie  one's  business  to  look  up  and  attend  to 
these  matters  exclusively.  A  competent  veterinarian  should  at  least 
have  an  active  c<»nnection  with  every  Board  of  Health  in  the  State, 
and  one  also  with  the  State  Board.  These  matters  are  too  in- 
timately connected  with  the  public  health  to  have  them  governed 
by  sejKirate  boards.  AVe  have  not  yet  been  able  to  completely  erad- 
icate the  disease." 

The  following  letter  was  kindly  furnished  me  by  Mr.  Firth, 
Secretary  of  the  Massachusetts  Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty 
to  Animals : 

Dear  Sir  :  In  response  to  your  request  to  be  furnished  with  a 
report  of  the  number  of  farcied  and  glandered  hoi-ses  coming  to 
the  notice  of  the  society  the  past  two  years,  I  herewith  transmit 
the  same,  as  follows,  viz. : 

Farcied  horses 2 

Glandered 27 

of  which  number  twenty-four  were  killed  at  once,  three  were  isolated 
by  the  health  authorities  (and,  as  we  were  informed,  subsequently 
destroyed),  while  the  final  disposition  of  the  remainder  was  never 
known  to  us.  And  in  this  connection  permit  me  to  say  that  the 
earliest  operations  of  the  society  (in  the  year  1808)  developed  the 
frequent  presence,  in  public  places,  of  infected  animals,  and  also 
the  not  unfrequent  complaints  at  our  office  of  men  who  had  been 
duped  into  their  purchase ;  and  not  only  were  the  diseased  ani- 
mals destroyed,  but  in  souie  instances  others  to  whom  they  had 
communicated  the  disease. 

The  growing  necessity  for  such  legislation  as  would  make  it  tlie 
especial  duty  of  local  boards  of  health  to  take  cognizance  of  such 
cases,  led  the  society  and  the  Board  of  Health  of  this  city  to  present 
to  the  Legislature  of  1878  the  draft  of  a  bill  that,  it  wa.s  felt,  would 
effectually  aid  in  stamping  out  the  disease.  The  result  was  the 
passage  of  chaj)ter  24  of  the  acts  of  that  year  (amended  in  ciiapters 
160  and  178  of  the  acts  of  1879). 


174  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

It  is  well  known  to  all  competent  authority,  and  it  was  in  evi- 
dence before  the  legislative  committee,  to  whom  the  matter  of  a 
statute  was  referred,  that  the  most  dangerous  are  the  Tiiost  obscure 
cases,  and,  inasmuch  as  the  general  condition  of  an  animal  under 
those  circumstances  is  not  such  as  to  render  him  unfit  for  labor,  it 
is  not  reached  by  the  particular  statute  (chapter  344,  acts  of  1869) 
our  society  seeks  to  enforce  ;  yet,  on  the  other  hand,  the  presence 
of  such  an  animal  in  a  public  place  is  dangerous,  and  in  such  cases 
we  make  it  our  duty  to  at  once  bring  the  matter  to  the  attention  of 
the  health  boards. 

We  feel  the  subject  to  be  all-important,  and  trust  we  have  been 
instrumental  in  secm*ing  a  measure  of  protection  both  to  animals 
and  their  owners. 

Yery  respectfully  yours, 

Charles  A.  Cueeiee, 

Special  Agent  of  the  Massachusetts  Society  for  the  Prevention 
of  Cruelty  to  Animals. 

I  have  made  exertions  to  get  reliable  information  from  other 
quarters,  but  only  received  the  two  following  letters  in  reply,  for 
which  I  desire  to  publicly  thank  the  authors. 

My  friend  and  colleague.  Dr.  Liautard,  of  the  American  Veteri- 
nary College  in  New  York  city,  writes ; 

"  You  ask  me  for  a  letter  with  regard  to  the  extension  of 
glanders  in  New  York  city  and  State.  With  reference  to  the  lat- 
ter, I  have  but  little  to  say,  as  my  experience  is  entirely  limited  to 
the  city  of  New  York. 

"  From  my  connection  with  the  city  Board  of  Health,  and  the 
American  Veterinary  College,  I  have  been  enabled  to  observe,  to 
no  inconsiderable  degree,  the  extent  to  which  this  disease  j)revail8 
in  our  metropolis.  Although  it  has  found  a  powerful  enemy  in 
the  Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals,  I  am  well 
satisfied  that  it  exists  in  our  private  and  public  stables,  and  can  be 
seen  traveling  upon  our  streets  every  day  in  the  year. 

"  In  connection  with  my  duties  at  the  college,  I  have  had  occa- 
sion to  condemn  quite  a  number  of  horses  brought  to  our  free 
clinics.  In  1876  I  condemned  40  horses  ;  in  1877,  49  ;  in  1878,  62  ; 
and  from  January  1  to  March  1,  1879,  49.  This  does  not  include 
animals  found  by  me  in  my  private  practice. 

"  But  the  most  important  of  all  my  observations  with  regard  to 
glanders,  the  one  which  has  no  equal  in  all  my  experience,  is  that 
of  the  summer  of  1877.     I  was  at  that  time  requested  by  the  Board 


THE  HORSE.  175 

of  Health  to  inspect  the  different  hir<i^e  pnbhc  stahles  of  the  city  in 
relation  to  ghuulei's,  as  the  disease  had  become  so  prevalent  as  to 
cause  numerous  complaints  to  be  made.  At  the  same  time  1  was 
'•ecpiested  by  the  president  of  one  of  our  larije  horse-railroad  com- 
panies to  call  on  him.  Upon  visiting  him,  I  examined  and  con- 
demned in  one  day  thirty-six  horses,  and,  after  impressing  upon  him 
the  dangers  to  which  the  entire  stock  of  the  company  were  exposed, 
I  was  authorized  to  extirpate  the  disease  from  their  stables.  I  in- 
spected the  entire  stock  (over  twelve  hundred  horses)  weekly,  then 
semi-monthly,  then  every  three  months,  until,  after  over  nine  months 
of  hard  work,  I  finished  my  task,  not  having  found  any  more  gland- 
ered  horses  in  my  last  three  visits.  TJie  comjyany  lod  hy  this  pro- 
cedure some  three  hundred  horses. 

"  On  retiring  from  duty,  I  warned  the  president  of  the  danger 
that  existed  of  the  disease  again  appearing,  and  endeavored  to  impress 
upc»n  him  the  necessity  of  professional  inspection  of  the  entire  stock 
weekly,  or  at  least  semi-monthly,  as  is  done  in  the  large  Continental 
companies.  Whether  my  advice  was  regarded  or  not,  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that  glanders  again  appeared,  and  is  still  existing  in  the 
same  stables  to  quite  a  large  extent. 

"Another  company  also  requested  my  services.  It  had  about 
nine  hundred  horses,  and  in  about  the  same  length  of  time,  and 
after  similar  work,  I  condenmed  to  death  about  one  hundred  horses. 
I  also  gave  the  same  advice  on  this  occasion  which  I  had  given  to 
the  first-named  company,  and  it  was  followed  to  such  an  extent 
that  I  am  not  aware  that  there  is  a  single  case  of  glaudei's  among 
the  Ivorses  of  this  company  to-day. 

"  In  another  stable,  which  I  visited  by  request  of  the  Board  of 
Ilealth,  where  there  were  over  two  hundred  hoi*ses,  twenty-five  of 
them  were  condemned  at  two  visits.  These  animals  were  kept  in 
the  hospital  of  the  stable,  and  were  under  the  care  of  the  st>called 
'doctor' (I).  I  had  no  authority  to  subject  the  entire  stock  to  revis- 
ion, but  if  I  had,  I  am  sure  that  the  results  would  have  been  fully 
equal  to  those  of  the  other  examinations.  I  am  ])ei'fectly  sure  that 
I  could  find  numerous  cases  of  glanders  among  the  horses  of  this 
company  to-day. 

"  Is  it  not  indeed  surprising  that  such  a  condition  of  things  shr»uld 
be  allowed  to  exist;  and  how  can  one  com])reheiid  that  the  president 
of  a  company  could  so  overlook  the  interests  of  the  stockholders  as 
to  allow  so  many  diseased  horses  to  remain  among  those  of  the  com- 
pany, without  continually  being  on  the  watch  to  prevent  such  dis- 
asters 1     Let  us  take,  for  example,  the  first  case :  300  horses,  valued 


176  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

at  the  loTvest  estimate  at  $125,  amounts  to  837,500.  The  same 
amount  to  replace  those  destroyed  makes  $75,000.  Add  to  this  the 
loss  bj  food,  labor,  the  danger  of  infection  to  other  horses,  the  costs 
of  cleansing  and  disinfection,  and  $100,000  would  not  cover  the  loss 
to  the  company.  In  spite  of  all  this,  these  companies  still  continue 
to  employ  as  veterinary  advisers  men  entirely  ignorant  of  the  phe- 
nomena of  this  disease,  or,  if  they  know  them,  men  who  are  false 
to  their  duties  to  the  public,  by  persisting  in  treating  animals 
they  refuse  to  condemn  even  with  the  most  manifest  symptoms  of 
glanders. 

"  Still  at  times  an  animal  is  recognized  by  one  of  these  practi- 
tioners, but  the  symptoms  are  of  a  mild  type,  the  animal  is  in  good 
health  and  condition,  it  represents  a  certain  sum  of  money :  he  al- 
lows it  to  be  sold  to  some  low  dealer  (if  he  does  not  recommend  it), 
or  perhaps  to  some  countryman.  In  the  first  case  the  horse  goes  to 
some  horse-market,  and  is  sold  again  to  some  poor  but  licensed 
vender,  cartman,  or  cheap  livery-stable  keeper,  unless  it  happens  to 
be  seized  by  an  agent  of  the  Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty 
to  Animals,  who  has  it  destroyed  upon  my  certificate.  In  the  sec- 
ond case  the  animal  is  taken  across  the  river  to  Long  Island  or  j^ew 
Jersey,  spreading  the  seeds  of  this  loathsome  disease  wherever  it 
goes.  In  the  face  of  such  evidence  as  this  is  it  not  high  time  that 
either  our  State  authorities,  or  those  in  "Washington,  paid  more  atten- 
tion to  the  contagious  diseases  of  animals,  and  enacted  laws  for  the 
protection  of  our  animal  property,  as  well  as  human  beings,  from 
infection?  Is  it  not  high  time  that  American  veterinarians  used 
their  infiuence  toward  the  establishment  of  a  general  sanitary  vet- 
erinary system  for  the  country,  with  its  appropriate  head  in  connec- 
tion with  the  JS^ational  Board  of  Health  at  Washington,  looking 
toward  the  suppression  and  prevention  of  these  damaging  animal 
pests  ? " 

Dr.  Gadsden  writes  from  Philadelphia  thus : 

"  Deak  Sir  :  In  answer  to  your  inquiry  respecting  the  preva- 
lence of  glanders  in  this  city  and  State,  I  am  glad  to  inform  you  that 
disease  is  seldom  met  with  now  in  this  city.  I  can  not  answer  for 
the  State,  but  no  doubt  there  are  many  cases  that  do  not  come  under 
my  notice. 

"  I  need  not  tell  you  that  I  have  them  destroyed  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible after  examination.  During  the  twelve  years  I  have  been  in 
practice  in  this  city,  I  think  it  is  safe  for  me  to  say  I  have  con- 
demned two  hundred  (200)  horses  with  this  loathsome  disease  and 


THE  HORSE.  177 

had  them  destroyed,  so  yoxi  will  see  I  have  not  been  idle.  About  six 
years  ago  I  was  called  to  one  of  our  best  horse-car  stables,  to  ex- 
amine some  '  sick '  horses  that  a  quack  was  '  treating '  by  contract 
(so  much  per  year).  I  found  several  of  them  suffering  from  glanders 
in  its  woi*st  form.  I  told  the  president  of  the  ctfinpany  the  conse- 
quences if  he  kept  them  longer  in  the  stable ;  he  ordered  me  to  pick 
out  the  diseased  ones  at  once,  and  if  I  remember  right  we  destroyed 
between  forty  and  tifty  of  them  in  about  two  weeks.  I  have  had 
that  same  unpleasant  duty  to  perform  at  four  other  horse-car  com- 
panies in  this  city  ;  the  quacks  used  to  treat  them  for  '  distemper.' 
"We  have  no  special  law  on  the  subject.  If  I  find  any  trouble  about 
having  the  diseased  horee  destroyed,  I  call  at  the  office  of  the  Society 
for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals,  and  ask  them  to  send  an 
officer  to  look  after  the  horse,  and  see  that  it  is  not  worked  (as  that 
would  be  cruel),  also  to  see  that  it  is  not  kept  near  other  hoi'ses  (as 
that  would  be  cruel  to  them) ;  so  you  see  it  very  soon  answers  the. 
owner's  purpose  (])ocket)  to  have  it  destroyed. 

'*  I  have  known  of  three  men  that  died  with  this  terrible  dis- 
ease in  this  city  from  inoculation  (through  sores  on  their  hands), 
while  attending  glandered  horses  and  mules ;  all  of  them  suffered 
very  much.  I  hope  you  will  do  what  you  can  to  teach  the  public 
the  danger  of  this  disease,  as  it  is  woi-se  than  this  (so-called)  pleuro- 
pneumonia in  cattle,  and  that  is  bad  enough." 

It  is  just  the  same  in  every  State,  and  our  national  Government 
is  as  incompetent  and  culpably  negligent  as  those  of  the  States. 

Cattle  commissions  are  unnecessary,  and  one-sided  affairs.  AVhat 
we  must  have  are  boards  of  animal  hygiene  in  each  State. 

A  great  noise  has  been  made  about  plcuro-pneumonia  among 
our  cattle.  The  Government  and  the  cattle  interest  most  emphati- 
cally denied  that  we  had  any,  as  they  do  now  about  porcine  trichi- 
niasis ;  but  finally  had  to  admit  that  we  have  a  little  of  the  former. 
We  should  never  have  heard  of  either  of  them,  unless  some  one 
had  felt  his  pockets  touched.  Then,  like  cowards,  we  sneaked  be- 
hind a  false  assertion,  and  said,  "We  have  not  such  things."  But 
Europeans  did  not  believe  our  assertion,  and  finally  we  retracted, 
and  admitted  that  we  have  just  a  few  cases  of  pleuro-pneumonia 
along  our  Atlantic  seaboard. 

How  is  it  with  glanders? 

(rlanders  has  much  in  common  with  pleuro-pneumonia;  it  is 
even  more  stealthy  in  its  progress.  Should  we,  unfortunately  (or 
fortunately,  I  should  say),  ship  a  few  lots  of  horses  with  this  disease 
to  some  European  country,  we  should  probably  again  have  the 

12 


178  THE  DISEASES   OF  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

stereotyped  denial  on  the  part  of  the  Government  and  the  horse 
interests ;  yet  I  venture  to  assert  that  there  are  to  the  thousand  fifty 
per  cent  more  glandered  horses  in  this  country  than  cattle  having 
the  contagious  lung-plague,  and  that  the  former  disease  is  extending 
with  more  rapidity  among  our  equine  than  the  latter  among  our 
bovine  population. 

The  government  gives  the  people  no  means  of  knowing  the 
facts  from  trustworthy  statistics.  The  United  States  Agricultural 
Department  of  Statistics,  with  regard  to  animal  diseases,  is  a  dis- 
graceful farce. 

Etiology. 

In  our  remarks  upon  the  views  of  different  authors  with  regard 
to  the  nature  of  glanders,  we  have  unavoidably  touched  upon  their 
ideas  as  to  its  cause,  which  renders  necessary  some  repetition  in  tliis 
place. 

"We  have  not  time  to  discuss  all  these  views  in  detail ;  but  we, 
as  those  before  us,  are  all  children  of  the  period,  and  can  not  well 
sej)arate  ourselves  from  the  opinions  prevailing  at  the  time ;  yet  we 
must,  in  all  things,  ever  entertain  a  certain  degree  of  skepticism  : 
to  doubt  is  the  beginning  of  self-education.  A  person  who  has 
never  doubted  is  an  ignorant  believer,  and  has  no  self-knowledge 
— a  mere  puppet,  unfit  to  be  a  member  of  any  profession. 

So  in  glanders,  one  party  has  looked  upon  it  from  the  iatro- 
chemical  stand-point,  looking  upon  an  abnormal  degree  of  oxidation, 
or  an  undue  degree  of  acidity  of  the  blood  as  the  cause ;  others, 
of  the  humoral-pathological  school,  saw  its  origin  in  all  sorts  of 
dyscrasies — not  diatheses,  as  Fleming  has  written — and  even  from 
our  stand-point  we  can  speak  of  glanders  dyscrasia,  but  not  in  the 
way  of  humoral  pathology,  whereby  the  dyscrasia  was  the  cause  of 
glanders,  but  from  the  natural  scientific  sense,  the  dyscrasia  being 
a  part  of  the  disease,  the  same  as  the  neoplastic  processes ;  that  is, 
the  result  of  the  action  of  the  inficiens.  Others  saw  in  it  a  form  of 
equine  scrofulosis ;  and  still  others  looked  upon  it  from  the  neuro- 
pathological  stand-point ;  while  others  saw  in  it  a  form  of  tuberculosis, 
and  with  the  eruption  of  the  pyaemia  theory,  we  find  it  classed  with 
that  kind  of  diseases.  Nearly  all  these  different  views  led  to  the 
more  or  less  strong  opposition  of  the  contagious  nature  of  the  dis- 
ease, and,  as  we  have  seen,  to  great  losses  on  the  part  of  the  people. 

Is  glanders  pyaemia  ? 

The  whole  theory  of  the  autochtone  development  of  glanders  is 
more  dependent  upon  a  few  experiments  with  pysemic  material 
than  anything  else. 


THE    HORSE.  179 

Renault  and  Bouley  injected  pus  into  the  jugular  vein  of  a  horse, 
supposed  to  be  healthy.  On  the  sixth  day  pustules  were  observed 
to  develop  in  the  nose,  and  soon  afterward  ulcers.  Death  resulted 
in  eight  days.  The  autopsy  gave  numerous  tubercles  in  the  lungs, 
and  ulcers  of  the  nasal  mucosa.  A  positive  result  followed  the  re- 
inoculation  of  another  horse,  with  nasal  discharge  from  this  one. 
Laisne  reports  a  similar  result.  Others  report  the  same,  but  Vines 
exceeds  all  in  absurdity,  when  he  asserts  that  he  produced  glanders 
by  means  of  injections  of  vitriol  into  the  trachea,  and  other  such 
procedures. 

These  experiments  are  openly  opposed  by  others  in  the  same 
direction,  and  are  not  conformable  to  the  results  of  pathological 
experiments  in  our  day.  In  fact,  it  should  be  well  known  that  the 
introduction  of  pus  into  a  jugular  vein  will  lead  to  processes  in 
the  lungs  which,  taken  by  themselves,  might  lead  one  to  suspect 
glanders. 

Furtho'more^  in  old  horses,  nodulated  bodies  are  frequently 
met  with  which  the  inexperienced  might  take  for  tubercles — such 
is  the  condition  known  as  bronchitis  nodosa. 

Whether  genuine  tuberculosis  occurs  in  the  horse  is  an  open 
question ! 

Lauret,  Billroth,  Guenther,  Spinola,  Gamgee,  Lee,  and  others, 
have  made  numerous  injection  and  other  experiments,  with  both 
laudable  and  ichorous  pus,  but  have  in  no  case  produced  glanders. 

It  will  be  observed  that  only  in  one  case  was  glanders  proved  to 
exist  by  second  inoculation,  in  Renault  and  Bouley's  experiments. 
In  aU  the  others  no  case  of  proof,  or  secondary  inoculation,  is  given. 

Were  glanders  ever  due  to  pyaemia,  we  should  have  far  more 
proof  of  it  than  at  present  exists. 

That  it  could  ever  have  been  assumed  to  be  generated  in  this 
way,  must  be  sought  in  the  hitherto  all  too  much  neglected  fact 
of  the  long  latency  which  the  pulmonary  form  may  have,  extending 
over  years  without  even  a  single  detectable  symptom  of  the  real 
disease.  A  wound,  a  cold,  undue  exposure,  or  any  of  the  causes 
hitherto  looked  upon  as  protopathie,  may  cause  the  acute  eruption 
of  the  disea.se. 

The  theory  of  the  spontaneous  generation  of  glanders  again  finds 
full  contradiction  in  the  observations  of  practical  exj)criencc,  made 
on  islands  distant  from  the  mainland,  and  out  of  general  communi- 
cation with  it. 

Krabbe  *  reports  that,  on  the  Island  of  Bomholm,  with  over 
*  "  Deutache  Zeiuchrift,"  i,  p.  286,  1878. 


180  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

7,000  horses,  the  disease  is  unknown,  and  the  same  is  true  of  lee- 
land,  with  about  35,000  horses. 

'No  one  would,  I  think,  be  bold  enough  to  assert  that  these  ani- 
mals are  not  as  much  subjected  to  the  evil  influences  of  exposure, 
poor  feed,  pneumonia,  etc.,  as  the  horses  of  more  favored  climates. 

While  we  can  not  help  expressing  our  surprise  that  authors  of 
undoubted  practical  experience  should  still  hold  to  the  spontaneous 
generation  of  glanders,  and  give  it  up  for  nearly  all  other  similar 
diseases,  it  is  still  more  surprising  that  any  person  of  sense  can  hold 
to  the  utterly  illogical,  metachemical,  or  degeneration  theory  by 
which  one  disease  transforms  itself  into  another,  without  the  aid  of 
cause. 

Such  a  thing  is  opposed  to  both  common  sense  and  experience. 
"What,  then,  must  we  consider  the  cause  of  glanders  ?  In  our  day, 
contagion,  and  nothing  else ! 

A  specific  but  unknown  inficiens  enters  the  organism  and  pro- 
duces results,  in  general,  only  observed  in  this  disease. 

In  accordance  with  tlie  best  results  of  modern  pathologists,  we 
must  assume  this  inficiens  to  be  of  an  organic,  formative  nature ;  that 
is,  belonging  to  the  bacterial  world.  Chauveau  has  looked  upon  pe- 
culiar cells  as  the  etiological  moment,  but  this  is  not  in  accordance 
with  our  present  views,  though  in  one  sense,  but  not  in  his,  the 
bacteria  are  cells.  Frank  has  looked  upon  some  chemical  material 
as  the  inficiens,  and  has  demonstrated  that  the  nasal  discharge  and 
blood  of  glandered  horses  possessed  catalytic  action,  and  could  trans- 
form peroxide  of  hydrogen  into  O  and  H^O. 

Hallier,  Mueller,  Seramer,  Zurn,  and  others,  have  all  described 
bacteria  found  in  the  blood  and  secretions.  Schutz  claims  to  have 
discovered,  cultivated,  and  produced  the  disease  by  inoculating  them. 
These  germs  must  either  act  of  themselves,  which,  from  the  nature 
of  the  disease,  is  scarcely  probable,  or,  which  is  more  likely  to  be 
true,  by  means  of  some  irritants  which  they  themselves  produce  by 
certain  unknown  metachemical  processes. 

Such  an  irritant  is  absolutely  necessary  to  explain  the  slowly- 
developing  processes  of  chronic  glanders — the  (as  we  shall  see) 
gradual  complication  of  the  stroma,  or  interstitial  tissues  of  many  of 
the  most  important  organs. 

It  is  not  in  conformity  with  our  knowledge  of  germ-life  that 
they  can  directly  act  in  this  manner.  Zurn  *  describes  the  bacteria 
of  glanders  as  follows  :  "  In  the  blood  of  horses  diseased  with  gland- 
ers I  have  found  micrococci,  and  strings  of  the  same — streptococci — 
*  "  Pflanzlichen  Parasiten,"  p.  375. 


THE   nORSE.  181 

consisting  of  from  four  to  eight  single  cells.  The  micrococci  did 
not  have  a  uniform  size,  yet  they  were  always  round,  and  had 
an  average  diameter  of  0-()002  millimetres.  I  observed  that  they 
multiplied  by  fission.  I  saw  these  objects  in  warm  blood  taken  di- 
rectly from  the  horse ;  they  were  principally  to  be  seen  in  and 
around  the  white  blood-cells.  The  red  cells  also  seemed  to  be  in- 
vaded by  them,  but  to  a  less  degree.  The  smallest  capillaries  were 
often  obstructed  by  colonies  of  micrococci." 

"  In  the  diseased  lymph-glands  I  also  found  gi-eat  numbers  of 
the  same,  and  also  staff-like  bacteria — bacilli.  They  were  either 
isolated  or  in  joints  of  two  or  three  members.  Such  objects  were 
also  present  in  the  mucous  lining  of  the  cavities  of  the  head." 

Whether  these  objects  seen  by  Zurn  have  really  any  etiological 
connection  with  glanders  is  still  an  open  questiun.  Pure  cultiva- 
tion, extended  experiments,  etc.,  can  only  finally  discover  the  imme- 
diate inficiens. 

One  must  be  careful  not  to  attribute  too  much  imj)ortance  to 
micrococci  or  bacteria,  found  in  any  part  of  the  nasal  cavity  or  phar- 
ynx, or  bodily  cavities  which  connect  with  the  open  air ;  fur  they 
are  not  to  be  considered  of  any  diagnostic  value,  and  their  isolation 
is  too  difficult  a  task  fur  our  present  means. 

The  germs  must  be  seen  and  collected  elsewhere  than  here,  or 
from  open  wounds,  on  account  of  these  foreign  admixtures — even 
though  such  material  be  highly  infectious  at  the  same  time. 

The  inficiens  of  glanders  is  both  transportahle — by  that  I  mean 
suspendible  in  the  expired  air  to  a  limited  degree — and  fixed  ;  that 
is,  attachable  to  any  foreign  vehicle  as  a  purveyor  and  supporter  of 
infection. 

With  relation  to  the  inficiens  being  based  upon  the  pers])iration 
and  expired  atmosphere,  we  have  the  very  illustrative  experiments 
of  Gerlach  and  Viborg. 

In  these,  horses  having  glanders  were  driven  in  cold  weather,  so 
as  to  get  into  an  active  perspiration  ;  the  steam  arising  from  them,  as 
well  as  the  expired  air,  was  caught  in  glass  receivers  prepared  for 
the  purpose,  and  allowed  to  condense. 

Ilealthy  horses  were  then  inoculated  with  this  material,  and  the 
phenomena  of  glanders  observed  to  develop.  The  expired  air  was 
found  to  be  far  more  active  than  the  transpiration  from  the  cutis. 

These  experiments  go  to  prove  two  things  : 

1.  That  the  inficiens  is  transportable  to  a  minor  degree. 

2.  That  the  inficiens  must  be  of  2l  formative  nature. 

No  other  conclusion  is  possible  ;  for,  in  our  studies  on  bacteria, 


182  THE   DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

we  have  already  learned  that  neither  gases  nor  chemicals  have  the 
power  of  multiplication  within  themselves  ;  yet  even  in  this  case,  mnl- 
tiplicatiou  of  the  inficiens  must  have  taken  place  to  have  produced 
infection,  for  Gerlach  says  that  "  only  some  twenty  drops  of  the 
condensed  fluid  was  used  for  the  inoculations."  Yiborg,  who  lived 
early  in  the  century,  could  not  well  have  discovered  form-elements 
in  these  fluids,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  the  microscope  which  Gerlach 
used  in  1868  was  equal  to  it.  At  least,  he  reports  that  none  were 
to  be  seen,  and  concludes  that  the  infectious  elements  exert  a  chemi- 
cal action,  which  was  also  Yirchow's  opinion  at  that  time.  Nega- 
tive experiments  (which,  however,  have  always  but  little  value  in 
the  face  of  positive,  as  the  individual  immunity  peculiar  to  all  spe- 
cies must  always  be  taken  into  consideration)  have  been  made  by 
Ilertwig,  Eegnault,  and  others,  with  reference  to  the  expired  air 
causing  infection  by  means  of  the  lungs.  Diseased  hoi'ses  were 
caused  to  breathe  into  a  canvas  bag  at  one  end,  while  healthy  ones 
breathed  from  the  other,  yet  in  these  cases  no  infection  took  place. 
These  experiments  are,  however,  only  too  abundantly  contradicted 
by  daily  experiences. 

The  Blood. — Numerous  experiments  made  with  the  blood  of 
glandered  horses  have  shown  it  to  be  infectious. 

Schimming  *  gives  the  following  resume  upon  the  results  of  his 
and  other  experiments  : 

1.  "  Yenous  blood  from  a  glandered  horse  injected  into  the  veins 
of  a  healthy  one  causes  glanders. 

2.  "  The  quantity  of  infected  blood  injected  appears  to  exert  an 
influence  upon  the  duration  of  incubatory  stadium ;  the  stage  of  the 
disease  in  the  animal  from  which  the  blood  was  taken  may  not  be 
without  influence  also. 

3.  "  Three  months  may  elapse  after  the  transfusion  of  such  blood 
before  we  can  recognize  any  pathognomonic  symptoms.  This  will 
probably  serve  to  explain  the  negative  results  which  followed  some 
of  the  experiments  of  Viborg,  Gerlach,  and  Hening ;  that  is,  the 
period  under  which  the  animals  were  kept  in  observation  was  too 
short  to  allow  the  disease  to  develop. 

4.  "  The  blood  from  glandered  animals  appears  to  have  a  less 
intensive  action  upon  healthy  animals  than  the  nasal  discharge,  and 
secretions  from  wounded  surfaces." 

5.  "  Transfusions  with  such  blood  in  dogs,  cats,  and  swine,  gave 
negative  results." 

6.  "  The  subcutaneous  injection  of  six  grammes  of  deflbrinated 

*  "  Ansteckungsfahigkeit  d.  Rotzblutes,"  Dorpat,  18T5. 


TUE  HORSE.  183 

blood,  taken  from  a  glandcrcd  horse,  in  dogs,  produced  the  disease, 
which  woukl  seem  to  indicate  that  in  this  way  the  blood  was  more 
actively  infections  than  by  intravenous  injection." 

Chauveau  looks  upon  the  active  principle  of  infection  in  the  blood 
as  being  based  on  certain  suspended  particles,  leucocytes,  or  other 
form-elements,  and  not  upon  the  serum. 

Time  failed  me  to  make  any  search  over  the  literature  as  to  the 
existence  of  tlie  infectious  princijsle  in  the  secretions  of  the  parotid 
and  other  glands,  or  the  urine,  although  Gerlach  casually  mentions 
that  the  latter  is  infectious,  without  giving  any  experimental  proofs. 

Both  practical  and  experimental  experience  sufficiently  prove  the 
fixedness  of  the  infectious  principle  of  glandei-s. 

"We  know  that  it  is  contained  in  the  discharges  from  the  nasal 
cavities,  in  tlie  secretions  of  the  cutaneous  ulcers,  and  that  whatever 
becomes  polluted  with  such  material,  be  it  the  harness,  cribs,  bed- 
ding, or  any  other  accidental  vehicles,  may  retain  its  dangerous  prop- 
erties for  a  long  time. 

A  valuable  experiment  could  be  made  as  to  infectiousness  of  the 
fieces  from  horses  diseased  with  glanders, 

Teiiaciti)  of  the  Contagium. 

The  infectious  principle  of  glanders  retains  its  activity  for  a  long 
time,  and  under  varying  influences.  "When  a  vehicle — nasal  dis- 
charge— is  spread  out,  and  quickly  dried,  on  any  hard  substance,  it 
soon  loses  its  activity,  but  in  stables  where  it  pollutes  the  crib,  etc., 
it  retains  it  many  months.  It  loses  its  activity  on  exposure  to  a 
temperature  of  45°  R. ;  by  exposure  to  scalding  water,  or  by  the  ac- 
tion of  chemical  agents — disinfectants — such  as  chlorine,  carbolic 
acid,  etc. — but  only  when  brought  into  actual  contact  with  the  same. 

Decomposition  does  not  appear  to  thoroughly  destroy  it  (Ger- 
lach). It  seems  to  lose  its  virulence  when  introduced  into  the  in- 
testines (as  flesh)  of  man,  the  dog,  swine,  and  hens,  but  while  not 
80  active,  is  still  capable  of  causing  infection  in  the  horse. 

The  dispersion  of  the  infectious  principle  over  the  organism  is 
by  means  of  the  blood  and  lymphatic  systems. 

The  Entrance  of  the  Infectious  Principh:  into  the  Orgajiism — that 
is,  Natural  Infection. 

Experience  goes  largely  to  prove  that  while  the  infectious  ele- 
ments of  glanders  have  a  fixed  character,  that  is,  are  not  capable  of 
being  taken  up  by  the  atmospheric  current,  and  carried  to  any  great 
distance  from  the  point  of  original  generation,  or  lodgment,  still  that, 


184:  THE   DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIJIALS. 

in  bj  far  the  greater  number  of  cases,  infection  must  take  place  hy 
means  of  this  principle  when  suspended  in  the  atmosphere  ;  that  is, 
by  means  of  the  expired  air  from  glandered  horses.  Were  this 
not  so,  cutaneous  glanders  (farcy)  would  be  far  m.ore  common  than 
it  is ;  in  fact,  it  should,  under  this  cu'cumstance,  be  the  j)rimary 
form. 

Again,  were  the  infection  not  generally  due  to  a  suspended 
principle,  we  should  have  far  more  cases  of  ulceration  in  the  lower 
or  exposed  parts  of  the  nasal  passages,  which  is  rare,  while  deeper 
seated  ulcerations  are  more  common. 

Again,  that  a  suspended  principle  is  commonly  the  cause  of  in- 
fection, is  proved  by  the  numerous  cases  of  pulmonary  glanders 
which  occur  with  little  or  no  nasal  complications ;  in  the  numerous 
cases  of  pulmonary  glanders,  accompanied  by  cicatrices  in  the  mu- 
cosa of  the  bronchial  tubes,  trachea,  and  pharynx,  all  indicating  the 
long  continuance  of  the  disease,  but,  with  eecent  complications  in 
the  super-nasal  parts,  with  no  evidence  of  older  complications. 

Disposition. — Immxinity. 

As  in  every  other  contagious  disease,  not  every  horse  exposed  to 
infection  has  glanders.  Of  138  healthy  horses  which  Lamirault 
caused  to  stand  among  diseased  ones,  and  to  be  cleaned,  etc.,  with 
the  same  utensils,,  and  to  work  with  the  same  harnesses,  only  29  be- 
came diseased — 28  with  glanders,  1  with  farcy. 

According  to  Lydtin,  40  to  50  per  cent  of  the  horses  exposed  to 
natural  infection  became  diseased. 

By  inoculation  of  23  horses,  only  8  became  infected. 

The  almost  invariably  fatal  character  of  the  disease  does  not 
allow  us  to  judge  whether  an  acquired  immunity  is  possible  or  not, 
by  animals  that  have  once  had  it. 

"With  the  present  French  mania  for  all  kinds  of  vaccinations  with 
cultivated  virus,  we  shall  probably  hear  of  a  modified  form  of 
glanders  being  able  to  give  an  acquired  immunity  to  natural  or  fur- 
ther infection,  at  least  for  a  time. 

I  always  stand  skeptical  to  all  such  assertions — ready  to  believe, 
but  doubting  until  the  evidence  is  overwhelmingly  ^w  or  con. 

At  present  I  do  not  believe  in  the  generalization  to  which  the 
few  Pasteur  vaccine  experiments  have  led. 

Inoculation  for  glanders  is  no  new  thing,  but  has  as  yet  always 
signally  failed.  Furnival,*  an  enthusiastic  Briton,  claims  "to  have 
cured  seven  bad  cases  of  farcy  by  inoculation,"  and  was  anxious  to 

*  "Fleming's  Veterinary  Journal,"  vol.  x,  p.  51. 


THE   nORSE,  1S5 

continue  this  method  of  equine  salv;ition,  but,  as  we  have  heard 
nothing  more  from  him  in  this  direction,  we  may  conchide  that 
there  are  backsliders  in  his  equine  salvation  army. 

Phenomenology. 

According  to  duration,  glanders  may  be  spoken  of  as  acute  or 
chronic ;  according  to  seat,  as  nasal,  pulmonary,  or  cutaneous  glanders 
(farcy). 

Pulmonary  glanders  can  occur  -without  either  the  nasal  or  cuta- 
neous forms  being  present,  but  it  is  very  questionable  if  cither  of 
the  latter  can  occur  without  evidences  of  pulmonary  complications. 

Chronic  glanders  is  the  common,  acute  the  rare  course  which 
the  disease  assumes. 

Incubation.  — D  u  ration. 

In  inoculations  the  incubatory  period  is  generally  from  three  to 
five  days,  but  in  natural  infection  it  is  very  hard  to  say,  the  authori- 
ties varying  from  five  to  six  days  to  as  many  weeks.  In  that  form 
which  is  known  as  chronic  glanders,  a  period  of  apparent  latency 
may  exist  for  months,  yet  even  here  there  must  be  a  period  of  incu- 
bation. 

Acute  glanders  may  terminate  in  from  ten  to  fifteen  days,  while 
the  chronic  variety  may  continue  for  months  or  even  years,  how 
many  is  an  open  question. 

Chronic  glanders  terminates  invariably  with  the  acute  form,  but 
when  the  acute  variety  follows  known  infection,  it  never  assumes  a 
chronic  character. 

Acute  Nasal  Glanders. 

Under  this  name  we  usually  find  both  the  acute  processes  in  the 
mucous  membranes  of  the  head  an<l  those  of  the  cutis  treated. 

It  is  generally  the  conclusion  of  chronic  glanders,  where  the  dis- 
ease occurs  by  natural  infection.  It  also  may  follow  directly  on  in- 
fection. 

Although,  according  to  Fleming,  Reynal  denies  that  acute  gland- 
ers generally  terminates  the  chronic  form,  the  evidences  to  the  con- 
trary are  so  strong  as  to  leave  no  doubt  of  its  correctness. 

The  acute  form  is  ushered  in  by  more  or  less  fever,  by  hyperne- 
mia  of  the  mucosa  of  the  nasal  cavities,  with  tumefaction  of  the 
same,  and  sometimes  with  slight  epistaxis  (bleeding  from  the  nose). 
In  a  few  days  the  nodes  begin  to  develop  in  the  mucosa,  or  dif- 
fuse yellowish  infiltrations  of  the  same  take  place ;  a  discharge 
from  the  nose  follows  the  first  stage  of  congestion  :  the  same  is  at 
first  thin,  viscid,  and  contains  but  few  cellular  elements,  but  it  soon 


186  THE   DISEASES   OF  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

becomes  thicker,  more  viscid,  of  a  queer  yellowish-green  color,  and 
adheres  moi'e  or  less  to  the  nostrils. 

These  nodes  and  infiltrations  soon  begin  to  show  evidences  of 
breaking  down,  the  edges  become  swollen  and  ragged,  resembling 
rodent  ulcers;  they  extend  by  the  formation  of  new  nodes,  or  pro- 
liferations in  the  circumference,  and  the  sequential  breaking  do%vn 
of  the  same ;  frequently  such  ulcei's  coalesce,  giving  rise  to  extensive 
ulcerated  surfaces.  When  these  conditions  last  a  long  while,  perfo- 
ration of  the  septum  sometimes  takes  place. 

It  has  been  noticed  that  the  discharge  is  often  limited  to  one 
nostril,  and  particularly  to  the  left,  for  which  we  have  no  explana- 
tion, but,  whichever  side  it  is,  there  is  the  locality  of  the  most  serious 
disturbances. 

The  submaxillary  and  retro-pharyngeal  lymph-glands  soon  be- 
come complicated,  the  infectious  elements  gaining  access  to  them 
by  means  of  the  lymphatics  of  nasal  cavities.  The  lymphatics  may 
often  be  seen  as  swollen  cords,  and,  if  not  seen,  felt.  The  processes 
in  the  glands  are  essentially  of  an  indurative  character.  The  breath- 
ing is  frequently  labored,  from  the  complication  of  the  larynx,  so 
much  so  that  death  may  sometimes  result  from  oedema  glottidis. 
The  fever  increases,  the  animals  become  more  and  more  depressed, 
lose  their  appetite,  etc.  If  this  condition  appears  as  a  conclusion 
of  chronic  glanders,  we  have  mucous  rales  in  the  bronchi,  sometimes 
pneumonic  infiltration,  with  the  usual  respiratory  symptoms. 

Soon  follow  oedematous  swelling  of  the  legs,  sheath,  the  sub-ab- 
dominal region,  with  the  characteristic  farcy-buds  over  difi'erent 
parts  of  the  body,  especially  the  posterior,  the  swollen  lymphatics, 
the  complications,  induration  of  the  sub-cutis,  etc.  "With  tlie  prog- 
ress of  the  disease,  and  breaking  down  of  the  tissues,  the  discharge 
from  the  nose  and  cutaneous  ulcers  becomes  more  profuse,  diarrhoea 
frequently  sets  in,  albuminuria  is  present,  and,  if  not  killed,  the 
animals  die  a  miserable  death  in  from  eight  to  fourteen  days. 

In  a  case  of  chronic  glanders,  inflammatory  conditions  may  be 
ushered  in  by  a  variety  of  circumstances,  viz. :  an  infected  horse 
may,  in  the  same  manner  as  a  healthy  one,  be  attacked  by  any 
acute  feverish  disease,  let  it  be  from  any  mechanical  injury,  from 
the  influences  of  cold,  or  miasmata,  or  any  such  thing.  Catarrhal 
disturbances  of  the  respiratory  tract  are  especially  favorable  to  the 
transformation  of  chronic  to  acute  glanders.  Bad  weather,  cold  and 
dry  east  winds,  in  fact,  any  influences  which  tend  to  irritate  the  mu- 
cosae, exert  a  similar  influence.  The  same  is  true  of  severe  surgical 
operations,  wounds,  fever,  etc. 


THE   nORSE.  187 

Bollin<^er  has  shown  hy  numerons  exjiorimcnts  tliat  tlic  nasal 
mucosa  is  a  favorite  place  for  the  local  disturbances  of  glanders  -with- 
out regard  to  the  point  whence  infection  took  pKicc. 

Pulmonary  Glanders. 

In  general,  this  form  of  glandei-s  may  be  looked  upon  as  the 
same  thing  as  chronic  glanders.  The  true  iniportanee  of  this  form 
of  the  disease  has  scarcely  had  due  aj^preciation  even  from  the  pro- 
fession. 

It  can  exist  for  montlis,  or  even  years,  without  the  appearance  of 
any  outward  signwhich  could  be  at  once  considered  as  pathognomonic. 

Gerlach  and  Bollinger  both  give  numerous  cases  where  glanders 
has  been  suspected,  but  in  which  characteristic  symptoms  entirely 
failed,  yet  on  the  autopsy  the  pathognomonic  phenomena  in  the 
lungs  were  found  abundantly  represented.     Gerlach  says : 

"  On  November  2,  1803,  three  horses  belonging  to  a  coal-dealer 
were  brought  to  the  school  clinic  at  Hanover.  No.  1  was  killed  on 
account  of  farcy  ;  Nos.  2  and  3  were  kept  for  four  weeks  under  ob- 
servation. They  were  both  emaciated,  and  had  an  ill-looking  coat. 
No.  3  had  no  other  suspicious  symptoms.  No.  2  had,  at  first,  a 
slight  tumefaction  of  the  intermaxillary  glands,  which  gradually 
diminished,  and  a  somewhat  retarded  respiration.  After  four  weeks' 
observation,  both  horses  were  returned  to  the  owner,  the  police  be- 
ing notified  that  they  were  still  to  be  looked  upon  as  suspicions.  On 
the  10th  of  February,  1804,  horse  No.  2  was  again  brought  to  the 
school  on  account  of  epistaxis.  It  was  much  emaciated,  and  asth- 
matic to  a  high  degree  ;  the  respiration  was  nmch  retarded,  and  the 
animal  had  a  short,  dry  cough ;  the  intermaxillary  glands  were  not 
disea.sed,  and  tiie  nasal  mucosa  presented  nothing  abnormal.  Fever 
and  symptoms  of  disease  were  entirely  wanting.  On  account  of  the 
antecedent  circumstances,  pulmonary  glanders  was  suspected,  and 
the  horse  killed. 

Aritopsy. — The  mucous  membranes  of  the  head  and  the  inter- 
maxillary glands  healthy,  the  lungs  filled  with  glanders  neoplasmata, 
etc. 

On  account  of  this  result,  the  third  horse  was  killed.  It  was  Iroken- 
■?f7/;jr7<'r/,  otherwise  not  a  single  sign  of  glanders  could  be  perceived. 

A  xitopsy. — Not  an  indication  of  glanders  in  the  naeal  cavities  or 
cavities  of  the  head.  Intermaxillary  glands  healthy.  In  the  lungs 
tubercles,  and  the  characteristic  growths  of  glanders,  phenomena 
which  may  be  looked  upon  as  justifying  the  strongest  suspicion 
of  the  presence  of  chronic  glanders,  especially  pulmonary. 


188  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  AOTMALS. 

Gerlach  says:  "It  can  be  almost  axiomaticallj  asserted  that  a 
continuous  hard  nodulated  condition  of  the  intermaxillary  glands  in 
a  horse  is  sufficient  to  excite  the  suspicion  of  the  existence  of  glan- 
ders, even  when  no  suspicious  phenomena  are  to  be  seen  in  the  nose. 
I  have  never  seen  a  tumefied  condition  of  these  glands  which  had 
any  deceptive  resemblance  to  the  bubo  of  glanders,  in  any  simple 
inflammatory  or  catarrhal  complications  of  the  mucous  membranes 
of  the  head. 

Further,  a  horse  must  be  looked  upon  with  suspicion — 

1.  "  When  it  has  a  dry,  dull,  wheezing  cough,  with  retarded 
respiration ;  when  the  general  condition  of  the  animal  is  poor,  the 
hair  staring,  the  body  emaciated." 

2.  "  When  horses  in  this  condition  have  stood  or  worked  beside, 
or  otherwise  been  in  relation  with  others  known  to  have  had  glan- 
ders. 

3.  "  When  the  dyspnoetic  phenomena  have  been  anticipated  by 
suspicious  glandular  or  catarrhal  phenomena. 

4.  "  When  a  horse  that  has  been  much  in  contact  with  such  a 
broken-winded  horse  acquires  the  disease,  the  latter  should  be  sus- 
spected. 

5.  "  When,  in  the  course  of  the  above  condition,  any  suspicious 
glandular  or  catarrhal  complications  make  their  appearance." 

Yeterinarians  have  made  a  mistake  all  along  in  judging  glanders 
too  much  from  the  clinical  stand-point,  that  i's,,from  visible  symp- 
toms, and  have  neglected  to  appreciate  the  true  value  or  teachings 
of  the  processes  in  the  larynx,  trachea,  lungs,  and  other  organs, 
which  are  only  revealed  by  a  necroscopical  examination. 

At  the  Berlin  school,  where  very  exact  records  are  kept  of  the 
results  of  each  autopsy,  it  was  found  that  in  216  cases  of  glanders, 
upon  which  examinations  were  made  between  the  years  1871  and 
1874,  the  location  of  the  disease  in  the  lungs  failed  in  but  ten  of 
them,  while  they  were  wanting  in  thirty-three  cases  in  the  nasal 
cavities  and  those  of  the  head. 

Pulmonary  glanders,  it  must  be  repeated,  is  as  frequently  the 
primary  lesion  of  the  disease  as  that  of  the  head  or  cutis.  Of  the 
above  216  cases,  the  lesions  of  the  lungs  were  found  to  antedate 
those  in  the  nose,  or  cutis,  in  more  than  half  the  cases. 

Bollinger  says,  from  much  experience,  that  the  conclusion  of 
Yirchow  and  others  is  erroneous,  that  the  nasal  mucosae  are  as  fre- 
quently the  atrium  of  the  infectious  principle  of  glanders  as  the 
genitals  in  syphilis,  and  that  the  pulmonary  complications  complete 
the  disease. 


THE   UORSE.  189 

In  proof  of  wliic'h  he  gives  the  following  cases  from  the  records 
of  the  Munich  school : 

1.  A  horse  was  brought  in  with  a  tumefied  condition  of  the  right 
hind-leg.  The  animal  had  a  slight  mucous  flow  from  the  nose,  oc- 
casionally coughed,  and  had  some  fever.  The  leg  continued  to 
swell,  the  fever  augmented,  and  tlie  animal  was  killed,  being  con- 
sidered incurable. 

Aiifoj)^-^. — Subacute  glanders  of  the  larynx,  the  trachea,  and 
lungs.     Nasal  cavities  completely  normal. 

2.  A  nine-year-old  horse,  in  a  fair  condition,  M-as  taken  into  the 
clinic  with  the  appearance  of  severe  dyspntea.  Nasal  outflow  from 
both  sides,  considerable  fever,  accelerated  pulse  and  respiration,  a 
weak,  painful  cough.  The  diagnosis  was  acute  ccdema  glottidis,  or 
muscle  paresis  in  larynx.  Tracheotomy.  After  eight  days  the 
horse  was  killed. 

Autopi^ij. — Chronic  and  subacute  glanders  of  the  larynx;  acute 
glanders  of  the  nose,  the  trachea,  and  lungs. 

Upon  the  septum  of  the  right  nostril  was  to  be  seen  a  fresh 
ulcer,  and  in  its  neighborhood,  as  well  as  liigher  up,  several  snudler 
ones.  Retropharyngeal  and  laryngeal  glands  acutely  swollen.  Ex- 
treme oedema  glottidis.  The  inner  surface  of  the  larynx  showed  a 
diffuse  ulceration,  partly  covered  with  fresh  granulations.  Isolated 
nodes  in  the  lungs. 

3.  Axitopsy. — Chronic  glanders  of  the  larynx  and  lungs,  with 
acute  nasal  glanders,  and  swelling  of  the  glands. 

Pathological  Anatomy. 

Glanders  is  essentially  characterized  by  ncoplasmatic  processes, 
which  are  represented  by  tubercles,  nodes,  the  diffuse  infiltrations 
known  as  glanders-growths,  and  by  pneumonic  conditions,  which  in 
general  come  under  the  head  of  dry  catarrhal,  also  by  complica- 
tions of  the  stroma  of  the  large  glandular  organs,  and  in  very 
chronic  cases  by  thrombosis  of  the  pulmonary  veins,  and  the  forma- 
tion of  gelatinous  infiltrations  of  varied  extent  in  the  lungs. 

The  unknown  inficiens  of  glanders  undoubtedly  has  a  specific 
tendency  to  act  upon,  irritate,  or  excite  into  a  state  of  proliferating 
activity  the  interstitial  tissues,  which  compose  the  stroma  or  frame- 
work of  the  organs. 

The  works  on  veterinary  pathology  absolutely  fail,  either  in  no- 
ticing this  fact,  or  calling  sufficient  attention  to  it. 

I  can  not  at  this  moment  recall  a  single  paper  upon  the 
"  shrunken  kidney  "  of  chronic  glanders,  which  is  a  very  common 


190  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

occurrence,  and  many  of  our  text-books  make  no  reference  to  the 
clinical  phenomena  by  which  it  is  indicated ;  but  when  present  we 
can  almost,  if  not  always,  find  casts  and  detritus  in  the  urine,  as  well 
as  albumen. 

It  is  also  worth  recording  that  this  shrinking  of  the  equine  kid- 
ney in  chronic  glanders — I  have  never  seen  it  in  any  other  disease, 
but  my  own  experience  is  very  limited — which  is  due  to  prolif- 
eration of  the  elements  of  the  stroma,  and  thus  anticipated  by  a 
swollen  condition  of  these  organs,  does  not  give  rise  to  that  granu- 
lous  or  hob-nailed  appearance,  which  occurs  in  man  under  like 
processes,  and  produce  the  condition  falsely  called  cirrhosis  renalis 
— Kcppo<i,  yellow — a  name  given  to  the  yellow  appearance  of  the 
cut  surface  of  the  liver — rum-drinker's  liver — due  to  stocking  of 
the  gall,  under  similar  processes,  upon  the  hepatic  stroma.  The 
framework  of  the  liver  of  the  horse  is  complicated  in  a  like  man- 
ner, giving  rise  to  brown  atrophy. 

As  the  disease  assumes  an  acute  character,  we  find  the  organic 
parenchyma  also  affected,  which  makes  itself  anatomically  apparent 
in  the  clouded  swollen  condition  of  the  cells,  the  fatty  metamor- 
phosis of  their  plasma,  and  finds  its  expression  in  the  w^eak  move- 
ments of  the  organs,  muscles,  and  the  gradually  approaching  ma- 
rasmus. 

The  very  frequent  occurrence  of  ante-mortein  coagula  in  the 
heart,  and  formation  of  extended  and  bleached-out  thrombi  in  the 
pulmonary  veins,  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  weakness  of  the  heart, 
due  to  parenchymatous  carditis. 

In  the  report  of  Ditmars  (to  the  Agricultural  Department,  pre- 
viously alluded  to)  on  glanders,  may  be  read  quite  a  dissertation 
upon  glanders-cells  as  something  specific.  This  idea  is  borrowed 
from  Gerlach,  and  is  simply  a  product  of  the  period  when  Gerlach 
studied  the  disease,  and  the  minds  and  endeavors  of  pathologists 
were  all  bent  toward  the  discovery  and  description  of  specific  cells. 

Singular  to  say,  Gerlach,  who  was  in  general  not  only  a  skep- 
tical but  most  logical  man,  fell  into  this  error. 

Gerlach  says :  "  The  neoplasmatic  processes  of  glanders  consist 
of  round  ceUs,  spindle-cells,  the  last  in  part  derivatives  from  the 
former,  and  the  proliferation  of  the  connective  tissue,  which,  by-the- 
way,  is  only  a  secondary  phenomenon  in  glanders,  and  has  nothing 
specific.  These  round  cells  have  nothing  singular  in  their  form, 
they  are  like  granulation  and  pus  cells  ;  nevertheless,  they  are  spe- 
cific and  the  true  basis  of  the  disease — they  are  therefore  gland- 
ers-ceUs." 


THE  noRSE.  191 

In  tlie  above  we  have  two  serious  errors : 

1.  There  are  no  such  things  as  speeitic  cells. 

2.  The  complications  of  the  connective-tissue,  stroma,  of  the 
organs,  in  which  i)ruliferation  takes  place,  is  essentially  ^tv (///«/•  to 
glandei-s — that  is,  in  the  general  manner  in  which  it  occurs,  though 
the  process  itself  has  nothing  specific  in  it,  and  may  and  does 
occur  under  other  conditions.  The  irritans,  the  infectious  prin- 
ciple of  glanders,  is  the  specific  element ;  and  also,  we  can  say,  the 
general  manner  in  which  the  interstitial  tissues  of  the  equine  or- 
ganism are  complicated,  is  also  something  peculiar  to  the  disease. 
Gerlach  contradicts  himself  when  he  calls  these  round  and  spindle 
cells  "glanders-cells,"  especially  the  former,  and  says  they  con- 
stitute the  "itjh'eijic  and  true  lasu  of  the  diseased  In  another 
place  he  tells  us,  "  they  originate  from  the  cells  of  the  connective  tis- 
sue and  epithelial  elements." 

"Were  they  specific  to  glanders,  they  should  be  peculiar  to  it,  and 
not  occur  in  anything  else. 

This  is  not  so:  they  are  the  simple prodiict^  of  inflammation. 
Just  such  cells  may  be  found  in  simple  but  severe  ulcerations  of  the 
nasal  niucosie,  from  wounds,  chemical  irritants,  or  such  like.  AVe 
can  produce  them  at  pleasure. 

Specific  cells  are  a  physiological  impossibility,  so  far  as  abnor- 
mality is  concerned. 

They  may  be  heterotopic,  that  is,  produced  at  a  place  where  they 
do  not  belong ;  as  an  epithelial  production  in  the  brain,  or  in  the 
uterus,  or  a  bone ;  then  we  call  it  cancer. 

Or  the  singular  phenomenon  of  an  embryonal  tooth  in  the  pa- 
rotid region,  which  is  sometimes  met  with  in  the  horse. 

Neither  the  cells  nor  the  teeth  having  anything  peculiar  in  them- 
selves, they  are  normal  elements  in  a  wrong  place. 

Cells  may  be  heterochronic — that  is,  normal  cells  may  be  pro- 
duced at  an  abnormal  time. 

In  Fig.  2  of  Gerlach's  illustration  of  glanders-cell,  he  give  as 
first-cla.ss  picture  of  the  gelatinous  connective  tissue  of  the  embry- 
onal uml)ilical  cord ;  a  specimen,  by-the-way,  which  offers  the  very 
best  opportunity  of  studying  the  appearance  and  connections  of 
spindle-cells. 

Glanders-cells,  cancer-cells,  tubercle-cells,  are  all  without  any  spe- 
cificity. It  is  not  the  cell  alone  which  makes  the  cancer  ;  it  is  the 
seat,  and  the  peculiar  anatomical  arrangements,  witli  its  physiologi- 
cal characteristics,  which  constitute  the  specificity  of  that  njalignant 
neoplasm. 


192  THE   DISEASES   OF   DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

The  genesis  of  these  cells  in  the  nasal  discharge  was  pretty  cor- 
rectly given  by  Gerlach,  but  since  his  day  we  have  been  taught  that 
the  greater  portion  of  them  are  migrated  leucocytes ;  this  is  true  for 
pus-formation,  but  in  inflanfimat'wns  it  is  certain  that  proliferation 
also  takes  place — hence  some  of  our  round  cells  may  be  prolifer- 
ated, epithelial,  or  connective-tissue  elements.  This  question  of  the 
origin  of  spindle-cells  by  formative  jDrocesses  or  inflammations  is 
still  an  open  one,  to  my  mind,  notwithstanding  the  authority  of 
Cohnheim.  I,  for  one,  do  not  believe  a  white  blood-cell  can  trans- 
form or  develop  into  a  spindle-cell.  We  can  not  tell  the  difference 
between  a  white  blood-cell  and  the  intermediate  or  round  cell  con- 
dition of  the  developing  spindle-cell. 

Lihe  hegets  like,  and  in  inflammations,  where  formation  takes 
place,  it  is  my  opinion  that  the  migrated  cells  perish  by  fatty  de- 
generation, and  the  formation  is  due,  as  long  ago  asserted  by  Yir- 
chow,  to  the  permanent  elements. 

In  glanders  we  have  more  or  less  circumscribed  forms  of  neo- 
plastic formations.  The  first  of  these  are  the  tubercles,  which  vary 
in  size  from  submiliary  to  that  of  a  cherry  or  acorn  ;  2.  The  gland- 
ers-growths, varying  from  the  above  to  the  size  of  an  apple,  but  of 
irregular  form  ;  3.  The  glanders-infiltrations,  which  are  less  circum- 
scribed in  their  outlines,  and  extended  along  the  surface  ;  these  are 
particularly  to  be  found  in  the  nasal  mucosa  and  sub-cutis. 

The  Glanders-Tuhercle. — There  has  been  and  still  exists  much 
discussion  and  difference  of  opinion  as  to  what  should  be  considered 
a  true  tubercle. 

While  this  discussion  is  valuable,  from  an  anatomical  and  prac- 
tical sense,  it  has  still  led  to  much  unnecessary  mystification  among 
students. 

It  has  always  been  the  old  hunt  after  specific  cells,  or  specific 
characteristics,  by  which  to  decide  between  two  (macroscopically) 
apparently  similar  objects.  In  the  energy  of  this  hunt  the  true  spe- 
cific has  been  lost  sight  of  to  a  much  too  great  degree. 

The  cause,  irritans,  is  the  specific  element ;  the  product  may  or 
may  not  have  specific  characteristics.  We  find  tubercles  occurring 
under  a  great  variety  of  circumstances  and  among  many  different 
species  of  animals.  Different  causes  lead  to  their  production  in 
one  and  the  same  species. 

In  the  horse,  tubercles  occur  in  glanders  ;  an  idiopathic  miliary 
tuberculosis  has  been  reported,  however. 

I  can  not  at  present  tell  whether  there  are  any  marked  structural 
differences  in  these  tubercles  in  the  horse. 


THE   HORSE.  193 

Again,  a  peculiar  chronic  production  in  old  horses,  with  more  or 
less  bronchial  catarrh,  is  known  as  "  bronchitis  nodosa";  this  has 
been  mistaken  for  •jjlanders  and  for  true  tuberculosis.  The  nodes  are 
mostly  conjposed  of  connective  tissue,  with  round  cells  between  the 
fibers,  and  consist  of  a  circumscribed  proliferation  of  the  walls  of 
the  finest  bronchioli,  as  they  lose  themselves  in  the  infundibula. 
At  times  one  can  make  a  differential  diagnosis,  macroscopically,  with 
ease,  a  transvei-se  section  of  the  object  revealing  the  lumen  of  the 
air-tube.  Carefully  executed  microscopic  section  will  ahcays  reveal 
the  true  nature  of  these  nodes. 

Hereditary  influences  do  not  ai)pear  to  play  any  part  in  the  pro- 
duction of  tuberculosis  in  the  hoi^se. 

The  ylamhrs-tiibercle^  in  the  lungs^  is  of  a  permanent  character ; 
it  does  not  extend,  as  in  human  tuberculosis,  by  infection  of  the 
neighboring  tissues,  forming  large  masses  of  degenerating  material, 
which  break  down  and  lead  to  the  formation  of  cavities — one  form 
of  phthisis  pulmonuni.  They  do  not  occur  in  any  such  quantity 
as  in  the  human  lung.  They  are  inclined  to  calcify,  although  fatty 
degeneration  of  their  centers  is  by  no  means  uncommon. 

They  are  due  to  a  specific  cause,  the  irritans  of  glanders. 

I  have  no  doubt  that  miliary  tuberculosis  can  be  produced  In  the 
horse,  by  the  entrance  of  foreign  substances  into  the  lungs,  as  the 
aspiration  of  a  spray  containing  in  it  the  sputa  from  human  phthisi- 
cal subjects,  as  has  been  done  in  dogs. 

"We  know  nothing  of  the  cause  of  the  very  rare  miliary  tubercu- 
losis in  the  horse. 

In  men  and  cattle  wc  have  an  hereditary  predisposition  to  tuhcr- 
culosis. 

Here  comes  the  ridiculous  part  of  the  assertion  of  many  authors. 

The  diseases  are  identical.  Why  ?  Because  in  both  cases  giant- 
cells  are  found  in  the  tubercles.  The  tubercles  of  glanders  ai*e  not 
true  tubercles. 

1.  Because  they  have  no  giant-cells. 

2.  Because  they  have  a  central  vessel,  which  these  others  do  not. 
Both  forms  have  a  vascular  circle,  or  retc,  cmbracinji:  them. 
Giant-cells  are  not  specific  to  tubercles.     They  are  not  present  in 

all  stages  of  the  development  of  the  neoplasm.  According  to  Kol- 
likcr,  their  presence  is  always  indicative  of  retrogressive  or  destruc- 
tive protissi's ;  they  arc  the  rodents  of  cellular  pathology,  or  physi- 
ology. 

They  occur  in  the  medulla  of  the  bones,  in  sarcomatous  tu- 
mors, and,  according  to  Kolliker,  are  one  of  the  active  causes  of 

13 


194  THE   DISEASES   OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

the  normal  indentations  of  the  bones — at  least,  they  are  found  under 
the  periosteum.  Tuberculosis  also  comes  to  pass  in  swine,  rabbits, 
Guinea-pigs,  monkeys,  and  other  animals.  Does  the  same  cause 
work  here  as  in  man,  the  horse,  or  cow  ?    . 

Again,  etiologically  speaking,  we  have  several  varieties  of  tuber- 
culosis in  man  :  First,  hereditary  causes  ;  second,  idiojyathic  infec- 
tion, from  antecedent  conditions,  scrophulosis,  cheesy  conditions  of 
glands  due  to  other  causes;  third,  infection  from  persons  having 
phthisis,  by  means  of  the  as])iration  of  some  specific  irritans  with 
which  they  pollute  the  air ;  and,  fourth,  the  questionable  infection 
due  to  milk  from  tuberculous  nurses,  or  cows. 

In  cattle,  we  may  briefly  assume  an  almost  similar  line  of  causes. 

This  will  do  for  our  present  purpose. 

The  tubercular  neoplasm  of  glanders  is,  and  always  will  be,  a 
tubercle,  having  its  peculiar  cause,  anatomical  construction,  and 
course. 

Undoubtedly,  in  some  unknown  way,  the  physiological  and  ana- 
tomical characteristics  of  the  different  species,  as  well  as  the  varia- 
tions in  the  cause,  exert  some  influence  upon  the  structure  and 
course  of  life  of  the  tubercle.  With  regard  to  the  structure  and 
nature  of  the  tubercles  in  glanders,  Yirchow  says  that  "  they  are 
formed  chiefly  by  cellular  proliferation.  In  the  youngest  neoplasm 
I  found  large  numbers  of  small,  delicate  cells,  as  well  as  numerous 
nuclei ;  in  older  tubercles,  the  cells  are  longer  and  contain  nuclei ; 
these  cells  are  very  abundant,  composing  the  greater  part  of  the 
node.  These  cells  undoubtedly  proceed  from  the  pre-existing  ele- 
ments, and  especially  in  the  mucosae  from  the  connective-tissue  cells 
of  the  mucosa  and  sub-mucosa.  The  greater  the  number  of  cells, 
so  much  more  dense  and  yellow  is  the  node ;  retrogressive  processes 
soon  take  place  in  the  older  nodes ;  the  cells  undergo  fatty  meta- 
morphosis, and  break  up  and  shrink. 

Leisering,  who  has  made  very  extensive  studies  upon  the  neo- 
plasmata  of  glanders,  says :  "  In  whatever  form  the  neoplasms  of 
glanders  may  appear,  the  cells  constitute  their  prevailing  element. 
They  are  generally  found  varying  in  size ;  the  majority  bearing  the 
strongest  resemblance  to  pus-cells ;  others  are  from  four  to  six  times 
larger.  Aside  from  these,  numerous  free  nuclei  go  to  make  up  the 
largest  part  of  the  node,  as  well  as  the  cells  of  proliferating  connect- 
ive tissue.  The  neojilasms  have  a  varying  character,  according  to 
the  predominance  of  the  cellular,  or  stromatous,  intercellular  tissue 
over  one  another.  The  more  rapid  the  development  of  the  neo- 
plasm, the  more  prominent  the  cellular  elements ;  on  the  contrary, 


THE   nORSE.  195 

in  slow  developiiHMit,  the  connective  tissue  prevails.  The  dissolu- 
tion is  liiistened  ur  retarded  by  the  same.  In  slow  development,  the 
vascularization  is  less  marked  than  in  rapid.  AVherever  the  pro- 
cesses of  ^lundei-s  are  present,  there  may  be  found  the  tubercles,  al- 
though the  luniks  are  the  favorite  seat.  They  are  sometimes  present 
in  great  numbers,  and  at  others  it  is  very  hard  to  find  even  solitary 
examples. 

AVhy  the  tubercles  in  the  lungs  have  so  little  tendency  to  break 
down,  and  those  in  the  nasal  mucosa  are  so  prone  thereto,  must  be 
sought  in  two  circumstances  : 

1.  Their  development  is  far  slower  in  the  lungs. 

2.  The  matrix  is  different. 

Those  in  the  lungs  are  absolutely  from  a  connective-tissue 
matrix,  while  those  in  any  mucosa  are  from  a  far  less  consistent 
matrix. 

At  any  rate,  they  occur  in  the  nasal  mucosa  ranch  more  as 
they  develop  in  the  lunnan  lung,  that  is,  en  masse,  which,  on  ac- 
count of  their  transient  character,  accounts  for  the  tendency  to 
breaking  down,  and  here  they  seem  also  to  have  the  infectious  char- 
acter of  the  human  tubercle,  new  ones  springing  up  in  immediate 
proximity  to  antecedent  ones,  which  gives  to  the  ulcerated  surfaces 
thus  caused  their  rodent  or  extending  characters. 

The  development  of  tubercles  in  the  sinuses  of  the  head  does 
not  occur  to  any  such  degree  as  in  the  mucosa  proper  to  the  nasal 
cavities  ;  the  nodes,  or  neoplasmatic  productions  which  we  find  here, 
have  a  different  character,  to  which  we  shall  again  refer. 

In  farcy,  the  tubercles  lie  chiefly  in  the  cutis,  although  they  also 
develop  in  the  subcutaneous  cellidar  tissue,  and  frequently  attain 
considerable  size. 

"  Histologically,  the  tubercles  of  glanders  arc  exactly  alike, 
whether  we  find  them  in  the  lungs,  nose,  or  cutis.  In  a  fresh  con- 
dition they  are  more  or  less  soft,  transparent,  and  of  a  pearl-gray 
color.  In  this  condition  they  each  have  an  individual  central  ves- 
sel, as  may  be  seen  by  injected  lung  specimens." 

Do  those  of  the  other  localities  have  this  central  vessel  ? 

"  In  the  examination  of  these  nodes,  we  may  often  find  at  the 
center  a  hemorrhagic  point,  which  probably  proceeds  from  this 
vessel. 

"  They  may  continue  for  a  long  time  in  the  above  condition. 
"When  newly  developed,  they  are  immediately  limited  by  healthy 
lung-tissue;  later  they  become  a  special  limiting  membrane  of  con- 
nective tissue.     They  are  frequently  surrounded  by  a  circle  of  con- 


196  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

gested  vessels,  outside  of  wliicli  we  frequently  find  more  or  less 
desquamative  pneumonia. 

"  They  undergo  different  metamorplioses ;  sometimes  fatty  de- 
generation or  calcification. 

"  These  calcified  centers  can  often  be  removed  as  small  calculi 
from  the  connective-tissue  capsule,  or  limiting  membrane.  The  de- 
velopment of  ulcers  most  frequently  occurs  in  the  mucosa  of  the 
respiratory  tract  and  iu  the  cutis ;  neoplastic  and  degenerative  pro- 
cesses following  successively  on  each  other." 

Infiltrated  Neoplastic  Processes. 

"  By  this  is  meant  diffuse,  not  sharply  circumscribed,  neoplas- 
tic growths,  composed  of  a  gelatinous,  pellucid,  yellowish,  reddish, 
or  grayish  mass. 

"  This  condition  is  most  frequently  met  with  in  the  mucosa  of 
the  nose,  the  sinuses  of  the  head,  the  larynx,  and  trachea ;  they  ex- 
tend but  little  above  the  surface  of  the  mucosa  proper. 

"  They  undergo,  generally,  two  forms  of  metamorphosis  : 

"  a.  Desquamation  of  the  epithelium  takes  place  upon  the  dis- 
eased localities,  leaving  an  ulcerated  surface.  The  cellular  ele- 
ments prevail  to  even  a  greater  extent  than  in  the  nodes.  They 
vary  much  in  size.  They  undergo  dissolution  very  rapidly,  and  give 
the  most  pregnant  examples  of  glanders  ulceration. 

"  h.  The  fibrous  character  may  predominate,  and  it  is  in  this  form 
that  cicatrization  takes  place." 

Yirchow  differs  from  Leisering,  in  that  he  thinks  the  cicatrices 
proceed  from  the  ulcers,  rather  than  from  the  infiltrated  form 
glanders.  Bollinger  looks  upon  the  cicatrices  as  processes  of  natural 
healing  of  ulcerated  surfaces,  whether  the  same  come  from  ulcera- 
tive or  infiltrated  disturbances. 

In  nasal  glanders  we  frequently  find  intensive  thrombosis  of 
the  veins  of  the  septum  and  turbinated  bones,  as  well  as  of  the  lym- 
phatics. 

The  mucosa  of  the  sinuses  of  the  head  is  very  delicate  iu  a  nor- 
mal condition ;  in  many  cases  of  glanders  we  find  it  the  subject  of 
neoplastic  processes,  mostly  of  the  diffuse  form,  interrupted  by 
numerous  circumscribed  places  of  a  more  fibrous  character,  which 
project  above  the  general  surface.  The  mucosa  and  periosteum  of 
these  cavities  form  one  membrane,  and  it  is  self-evident  that  one 
can  not  be  complicated  without  the  disturbance  extending  to  the 
others,  which  leads  to  the  developmont  of  osteophytes  and  hyperos- 
toses, which  remain  after  the  mucosa  has  been  removed  by  maceration. 


THE  noRSE.  197 

ITauhner,  of  Dresden,  lias  ciideavoretl,  ami  often  successfully,  to 
make  use  of  these  complications  of  the  sinuses  of  the  head  as  aids 
to  diagnosis  in  doubtful  cases  of  glanders.  By  trepanning,  the  dis- 
eased nature  of  the  mucosa  and  hones  may  fre(pient!y  be  seen,  and 
in  many  cases  the  true  nature  of  the  disease  may  be  determined  by 
the  ulcerative  character  which  the  healing  wound  of  the  operation 
assumes,  although  this  can  not  be  said  to  be  an  invariable  rule. 

AVe  also  find  these  diffuse  neoplastic  processes  in  the  lungs  of 
varying  size  and  quantity.  Sometimes  they  are  on  the  edges,  and 
at  others  in  the  body  of  the  lung.  In  their  substance  tubercles  may 
be  often  found  ;  the  adjoining  tissue  is  generally  more  or  less  hyper- 
ffimic. 

At  fii-st,  these  places  consist  of  a  yellow,  gelatinous  mass  ;  later, 
the  cellular  or  fibroid  character  may  jirevaih  In  the  first  case,  they 
present  some  characteristics  of  gray  hepatization  •  in  the  last,  the 
cut  surface  is  dry,  and  the  resistance  to  the  knife  greater  in  making 
a  transvei-se  section. 

These  infiltrations  undergo  the  same  metaraoqihoscs  which  we 
have  learned  in  the  tubercles,  and  complicate  the  pulmonary  tissue 
in  their  dissolution.  In  general,  caseification  and  calcification  take 
place.  They  are  frequently  circumscribed  by  a  sort  of  connective- 
tissue  capsule. 

The  processes  in  the  cutis  and  limiting  muscles  have  the  same 
characteristics  as  those  in  the  lungs  and  nasal  cavities,  except  that 
the  lymphatics  are  more  considerably  complicated.  They  frequent- 
ly terminate  in  extensive  sclerosis  of  the  subcutaneous  cellular  tis- 
sues or  the  development  of  ulcers,  farcy-buds,  or  abscesses.  Ery- 
sipelatous and  phlegmonous  complications  of  the  cutis  and  subcutis 
are  by  no  means  uncommon,  especially  in  the  extremities. 

As  secondary  complications  of  glanders,  we  often  find  bronchitis 
and  broiu'ho-pneumonia  in  the  lungs,  especially  in  the  anterior  and 
deeper  portions. 

Another  peculiar  pulmonary  complication,  though  not  specific  to 
glanders  alone,  as  it  comes  also  in  aged  and  worn-out  horses,  is 
known  as  gelatinous  infiltrations. 

This  condition  being  so  common,  and  so  little  noticed  in  works 
on  veterinary  pathology,  I  feel  justified  in  touching  upon  it  here. 

Schutz,  the  able  pathologist  of  the  Veterinary  School  at  Berh'n, 
says,  "This  condition  occurs  quite  frequently  in  the  lungs  of  horses 
complicated  with  glanders,  and  I  must  admit  that  I  have  had  no 
little  difficulty  in  following  its  genesis."  * 

*  "  LuDgenkraDkheitea  des  Pferdca." 


198  THE  DISEASES  OF  DOMESTIC  A^HMALS. 

Gelatinous,  infiltrated  portions  of  the  lungs  are  more  or  less 
transparent,  densely  filled  witli  fluid,  and  extended  to  a  moderate 
degree.  The  fluid  in  sucli  parts  is  viscid.  The  changes  in  these 
parts  become  -more  marked  as  the  fluid  in  the  alveoli  augments. 
When  Tve  make  a  transverse  section  of  such  parts,  this  fluid  does 
not  flow  over  the  cut  surface,  which  is  smooth  and  lustrous,  unless 
we  exert  pressure  upon  the  lung.  The  contents  of  the  alveoli 
strongly  resemble  mucus,  but,  as  there  is  no  mucous  membrane  in 
the  alveoli,  it  terminates  with  the  brouchiolus  ;  if  this  fluid  contains 
mucin,  it  must  then  be  aspirated  with  the  air.  It  does  not,  how- 
ever, contain  mucin.  This  fluid  is  very  viscid  and  much  like  the 
white  of  eggs ;  it  also  contains  cells,  most  of  which  strongly  resem- 
ble the  white  blood-cells  ;  some  of  them  are  larger,  and  are  undoubt- 
edly desquamated  and  swollen  endothelial  cells. 

Accordingly,  the  disease  product  in  the  lungs  consists  of  a  viscid 
fluid  and  cellular  elements ;  this  mass  seems  to  be  of  a  movable 
nature,  and  it  is  quite  interesting  to  know  why  it  is  not  expecto- 
rated. 

At  first,  however,  I  will  remark  that  I  can  not  accept  the  termi- 
nology, "  inveterate  oedema,"  which  Rindfleisch  has  given  to  this 
condition,  especially  as  he  attributes  it  to  the  extravasation  of  the 
serous  elements  of  the  blood  in  consequence  of  mechanical  hinder- 
ance  to  the  circulation.  On  the  contrary,  we  have  here  to  do  with 
an  inflammatory  process,  as  is  indicated  by  the  presence  of  so  many 
round  cells  in  the  fluid.  Laennec  was  the  first  to  give  the  name  of 
"  gelatinous  infiltrations "  to  these  conditions,  and  Briickmiiller  has 
also  treated  it  as  an  inflammatory  process.  In  it  the  extravasation 
of  fluid  far  exceeds  that  of  the  cellular  elements  of  the  blood, 
which,  with  the  desquamated  epithelium  of  the  alveoli,  make  up 
the  mass.  "When  this  occurs  alone  we  have  a  desquamative  pneu- 
monia, which  is  similar  to  the  desquamation  which  occurs  from 
the  cutis,  except  that  the  loosened  cells  are  here  inclosed  in  a  cav 
ity ;  the  presence  of  the  fluid  in  this  case  causes  them  to  swell, 
and  become  more  or  less  transparent,  the  same  as  when  we  put  tlie 
desquamated  cells  of  the  cutis-e'pithelium  in  water.  As  in  most 
pneumonias,  there  is  also  an  exudation  of  fluid  from  the  vessels  into 
the  alveoli ;  the  name  of  catarrhal  pneumonia  is  better  than  Buhl's 
terminology,  "  desquamative  j^neumonia."  Horses  have,  in  general, 
this  form  of  pneumonia,  although  not  every  catarrhal  pneumonia 
is  complicated  with  gelatinous  infiltration. 

The  conditions  to  the  development  of  gelatinous  infiltration  are : 

1.  ^^Atelectasis  of  tJie  comjplicated  jpuhnonary  tissue — i.  e.,  the 


THE   HORSE.  199 

complicated  portion  of  the  lun^s  must  first  be  ai7'Iess  before  the 
inthmimatory  processes  take  pUice.  The  atelectatic  parts  have  a 
more  or  less  liomo^eneous  character,  and,  when  they  become  filled 
with  this  riuid  substance,  they  have  the  above-mentioned  gelatinous, 
pelhicid  character.  The  atelectatic  parts  are  rendered  oidematous  by 
the  intlammation ;  fluid  and  cells  distend  the  alveoli  instead  of  air; 
such  parts  are  tense,  yet  elastic  to  the  touch.  AVe  have,  then,  atelec- 
tasis— airlessness — plus  inflammatory  cedema." 

"  It  may  be  remarked  that  we  have  two  forms  of  cedema :  the 
one  mechanical,  due  to  some  interference  with  the  circulation,  by 
which  the  vessels  become  so  distended  that  the  serous  elements  of 
blood  exude  thro\igh  the  vessels;  this  is  exemplified  by  the  collat- 
eral a''lei/ia,  which  often  takes  place  in  the  non-complicated  parts  of 
the  lungs  in  pneumonia,  that  causes  death  by  a  sort  of  internal 
self -drowning.  The  other  is  due  to  inflammation,  which  you  should 
know  all  about."' 

2.  "  A  second  condition  proper  to  gelatinous  infiltration  is  ana3- 
mia  ;  or,  in  other  words,  bloodless  atelectasis  is  a  sine  qua  no)i  to  ge- 
latinous infiltration.  This  anajmia  is  the  reason  that  such  parts 
have  a  yellowish  or  yellowish-gray  color.  According  to  Rindfleisch, 
a  hypenvmic  condition  develops  in  every  atelectatic  part.  This 
hyperoimia  is  the  cause  of  the  exudation  of  the  blood-serum  in  the 
alveoli,  and  causes  a  condition  which  he  names  splenization.  His 
*  inveterate  cedema '  is  only  to  be  distinguished  from  splenization 
by  the  absence  of  hypenemia,  and  the  anaemia  by  the  pressure 
caused  by  the  continued  transudation  of  fluid  into  the  alveoli." 

According  to  Schutz,  neither  splenization  nor  gelatinous  infiltra- 
tion are  due  to  mere  serous  transudation.  Both  owe  their  genesis 
in  atelectatic  tissues  to  inflammation,  except  in  splenization  the  ato- 
lectasic  tissues  are  in  a  hypersBinic,  while  in  gelatinous  infiltration 
they  are  in  an  ancemic  condition.  The  splenized  and  gelatinous 
infiltrated  tissues  contain  not  only  serous  fluid,  but  the  products 
of  inflammation,  i.  e.,  water,  which  is  rich  in  albumen  and  cellular 
elements.  Gelatinous  infiltration  is,  therefore,  not  the  second  stiige 
of  splenization,  as  Rindfleisch  asserts,  but  either  can  occur  8ui  gene- 
ris,  and  we  have  therefore  to  consider  why  at  one  time  we  have 
gelatinous  infiltration  and  at  another  splenization  of  the  lung. 

"  I  have  only  seen  gelatinous  infiltration  in  emaciated  and  weak 
liorses,  which  were  anremic.  It  makes  no  diflference  whether  this 
latter  condition  was  produced  by  poor  dietetic  conditions  or  chronic 
disease.  In  such  horses  all  parts  are  pale,  also  the  atelectatic  por- 
tions of  the  lungs  ;  and  slight  catarrhal  processes  in  such  parts  easily 


200  THE   DISEASES   OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

produce  gelatinous  infiltration.  The  grade  of  the  anaemia  present 
decides  the  grade  of  the  paleness,  and  the  latter  is  not  the  secondary 
but  the  primary  condition  of  the  lungs,  into  which  the  transudation 
of  fluid,  etc.,  takes  place.  "When,  however,  the  atelectatic  parts  are 
at  the  same  time  hypersemic,  as  in  vital  hypostasis,  and,  in  such 
hypostatic-atelectatic  parts,  inflammation  takes  place,  then  we  have 
splenization. 

"  Gelatinous  infiltration,  therefore,  consists  of  atelectasis,  om(2- 
mia,  transudation  of  fluid,  and  a  moderate  filling  of  the  alveoli  with 
cells ;  splenization,  of  atelectasis,  hypostasia,  hyperccmia^  transuda- 
tion of  fluid,  and  a  moderate  filling  of  the  alveoli  with,  cells." 

The  conditions  to  atelectasis  and  ansemia  are  always  present  in 
emaciated  horses.  In  such,  the  respiratory  movements  ai*e  weak, 
and  they  frequently  suffer  from  bronchial  catarrh.  Atelectasis  is 
naturally  to  be  found  in  those  portions  of  the  lungs  where  the  con- 
ditions to  the  free  circulation  of  the  air  are  the  least  favorable ;  that 
is,  the  middle  and  anterior  portions  of  each  lung.  The  extent  of 
the  atelectasis  is  dependent  upon  the  extension  of  the  bronchial 
catarrh,  and  the  degree  of  weakness  of  the  respiratory  functions. 
As  such  horses  are  also  anaemic,  the  atelectatic  portion  of  the  lung 
must  be  in  a  like  condition.  Atelectasis  and  ansemia  are  both  quite 
common  in  horses  suffering  from  chronic  glanders ;  their  respira- 
tory functions  are  also  weak,  and  they  often  suffer  from  bronchial 
catarrh.  Therefore,  in  such  horses,  the  lungs  are  already  j)repared 
for  gelatinous  infiltration,  and  we  see  it  occurs  the  moment  they 
acquire  a  catarrhal  pneumonia.  Gelatinous  infiltration  is,  how- 
ever, a  secondary  complication,  and  has  no  idiopathic  connection 
with  glanders.  Each  can  occur  without  the  other,  though  the 
former  is  a  frequent  complication  of  the  latter.  We  frequently  find 
the  pathological  processes  of  glanders  in  small  and  circumscribed 
portions  of  the  lungs,  while  the  gelatinous  infiltrations  complicate 
extensive  portions  of  the  same.  When  the  latter  are  very  exten- 
sive, we  often  see  striking  clinical  phenomena,  caused  by  local  ca- 
tarrhal pneumonia,  which  has  come  in  as  a  secondary  comj)lication 
to  glanders.  Clinicians  have  then  said  that  the  glanders  has  be- 
come acute,  though  in  truth  it  has  only  become  complicated  by  an 
acute  catarrhal  pneumonia. 

"  If  they  die  in  this  condition,  glanders  has  not  been  the  cause, 
but  the  accessory  complication.  If  such  horses  have  laid  upon  one 
side  for  some  time  ante-mortem^  we  shall  find  hypostatic  hyperfemia 
in  the  diseased  portions  of  the  lungs,  and  then,  instead  of  gelatinous 
infiltration,  we  shall  find  a  splenized  condition  in  the  deeper-seated 


THE   UORSE.  201 

portions  of  the  Inngs.     Such  parts  tlorive  their  name  from  their  re- 
semblance to  the  spleen. 

''  Gelatinous  infiltration  and  s[)k'nization  occur  under  peculiar 
circnmstances  ;  both  of  them  represent  the  beginning  of  an  inflam- 
matory process,  or  a  cellular  infiltration  of  the  alveoli — red  hepatiza- 
tion. Frequently,  however,  the  alveoli  become  filled  with  cells, 
when  we  have  the  condition  of  full  cellular  alveolic  infiltration — 
gray  hepatization.  These  places  are  situated  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
bronchioli,  and  bespeak  a  high  degree  of  irritation  of  the  pulmonic 
tissues.  The  causes  of  catarrhal  pneumonia  find  their  atrium  by 
means  of  the  bronchi,  so  it  is  natural  that  these  conditions  should 
develop  in  tlieir  vicinity.  Broncho-pneumonia  has  always  a  local 
character ;  it  is  circumscribed,  not  diffuse ;  centers  of  pneumonia, 
therefore,  develop  in  the  gelatinous,  infiltrated,  or  splenized  parts. 
In  the  first,  the  centers  are  of  a  whitish,  in  the  latter  of  a  gravish- 
red,  color.  Persons  who  look  upon  all  circumscribed  inflammatory 
centers  as  indications  of  glanders,  could  easily  mistake  these  for  the 
same.  They  have  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  glanders,  however, 
and  can  occur  in  any  horse  under  the  above  conditions." 

AVe  have  already  spoken  of  the  general  complication  of  the  in- 
terstitial tissue,  or  stroma,  of  the  large  glands  of  the  organism  in 
glanders,  which  does  not  find  mention  in  the  books,  and  have  only 
to  mention  that  circumscribed  neoplasmata  also  develop  in  these 
organs,  and  sometimes  within  the  l)ones.  In  the  liver  they  possess 
a  great  inclination  to  calcify.  Clouded  swelling  and  granular  de- 
generation of  parenchyma  of  these  organs  also  take  place.  Leuco- 
cytosis,  or  an  unnatural  number  of  white  blood-cells,  is  also  common 
in  chronic  glanders  ;  the  increase  of  these  cells  is  sometimes  so  great 
as  to  produce  a  veritable  leucaemia ;  ten  white  to  twenty  red  cells 
have  frequently  been  counted.  The  cause  of  this  condition  is  to  be 
sought  in  the  constant  irritation  which  the  lymph-glands  undergo  in 
this  disease. 

Diagiiosis. 

The  diagnosis  of  glanders  is  often  extremely  difficult ;  especially 
is  this  the  case  in  the  chronic  form,  where  all  external  pathognomonic 
symptoms  are  wanting;  but  the  fact  of  infection  of  other  horses, 
the  prevalence  of  the  previously  detailed  dyspnretic,  debilitated, 
and  other  suspicions  phenomena  arc  generally  sufficient  to  warrant 
a  questionable  diagnosis,  and  the  exact  quarantining  or  slaughter- 
ing of  the  animal  by  the  authorities. 


202  THE   DISEASES   OF  DOMESTIC  AXIMALS, 

Prognosis. 

Always  unfavorable ;  treatment  is  never  justifiable,  on  account 
of  the  danger  of  the  extension  of  the  disease  to  man  and  other  ani- 
mals. 

Prevention. 

Xo  one  but  accredited  veterinarians  should  ever  be  permitted  to 
examine  either  glandered  or  suspected  horses  by  the  civil  authori- 
ties. If  the  disease  is  confirmed,  or  if  there  is  a  justified  suspicion 
of  its  existence,  the  veterinarian  should  at  once  inaugurate  careful 
inquiries  as  to  the  period  during  which  the  suspicious  symptoms 
have  been  present;  the  number  of  horses  stabled  with  such  dis- 
eased or  suspected  ones ;  whether  they  have  worked  with  them ; 
which  have  stood  beside  them,  and  for  how  long ;  have  any  been 
sold,  or  otherwise  removed  from  the  stable,  and  carefully  examine 
each  horse  in  detail.  The  results  of  such  an  examination  should  be 
reported  in  due  form  to  the  civil  authorities.  The  examining  vet- 
erinarian should  at  once  isolate  the  diseased  or  suspected  horses  in 
a  place  distant  from  the  healthy  ones,  or  better,  the  healthy  ones 
should,  if  possible,  be  removed  from  the  infected  stable.  The  owner 
and  attendants  must  be  notified  of  their  duties  in  this  regard,  and  of 
the  danger  to  themselves  from  carelessness. 

Special  persons  should  be  detailed  to  take  care  of  the  suspected 
animals. 

The  veterinarian  should  make  an  accurate  and  detailed  descrip- 
tion of  each  horse  upon  the  place,  or  in  the  stable,  a  copy  of  which, 
with  owner's  name,  should  be  given  to  the  civil  authorities. 

If  glanders  be  diagnosed  in  a  horse,  it  should  be  at  once  killed, 
and  in  a  way  to  guarantee,  as  far  as  possible,  no  further  extension  of 
the  disease. 

When  the  suspicion  of  glanders  exists,  the  animals  should  be 
killed— 

1.  TVhen  it  can  be  proved  that  the  suspected  animal  has  been  in 
intimate  relations  with  one  known  to  have  had  the  disease. 

2.  When  there  exists  a  suspicious  nasal  discharge ;  tumefaction 
and  nodulated  conditions  of  the  intermaxillary  and  other  accessible 
lymph-glands;  when  suspicious  cutaneous  conditions  are  present, 
especially  when  in  unison  with  these  conditions  we  have  more  or  less 
marked  difficulty  in  respu-ation,  and  want  of  condition  in  the  animal. 

3.  When,  after  the  lapse  of  three  months,  a  suspected  horse 
can  not  be  declared  free  from  suspicion  by  a  majority  of  three  quali- 
fied veterinarians. 


THE   nORSE.  203 

4.  AVlien  the  owner  can  not  supply  suitable  conveniences  for 
quiirantiiiing  sueli  a  horse,  or  where  reasons  exist  which  rentier  such 
a  procedure  necessary  to  the  public  good, 

5.  If  the  owner  refuses  to  comply  with  the  veterinary  police 
regulations. 

AVhen  necessary,  suspected  horses  should  be  branded  in  a  man- 
ner to  be  fixed  by  law. 

A  hoi-se  must  be  looked  upon  as  "  suspected  "  when  it  has  stood 
in  the  same  stable  with  one  known  to  have  or  have  had  the  disease  ; 
or  when  it  is  known  that  it  has  been  exposed  to  infection  from  such 
a  horse. 

Suspected  horses  or  stables  must  be  subjected  to  periodical  ex- 
aminations by  an  accredited  veterinarian  ;  these  revisions  should 
occur  at  least  once  in  eight  days. 

Such  horses  may  be  allowed  to  be  used  within  certain  limits  and 
according  to  certain  regulations  of  the  civil  authorities. 

Such  horses  should  be  kept  under  veterinary  control  for  a  period 
of  not  less  than  three  months.  If  the  restrictive  regulations  of  the 
civil  authorities  are  not  rigidly  adhered  to,  suspected  horses  must  be 
subjected  to  stable  (quarantine,  where  veterinary  revision  should  also 
take  place  at  least  twice  a  month. 

The  animal  should  be  peremptorily  killed,  should  the  owner 
attempt  to  evade  these  rules,  and  the  evasion  punished  by  law. 

Should  the  disease  extend  from  an  infected  locality,  a  careful 
examination  of  the  horses  in  the  vicinity  should  l)c  made. 

The  cadavers  of  horses  killed  on  account  oi  e;landers  should 
either  be  chemically  destroyed  or  securely  buried,  after  the  hide 
had  been  destroyed  by  slashing  and  the  carcass  rendered  unpal- 
atable by  saturation  -with  kerosene.  Three  feet  of  earth  should 
cover  such  cadavers,  and  the  burial-place  be  either  fenced  in  or 
pave<l. 

Public  watering-troughs  are  to  be  condemned,  and  faucets  put 
in  their  place.  Ilackmen,  teamsters,  etc.,  should  be  obliged  by  law 
to  carry  buckets  to  water  their  horses. 

The  disease  may  be  declared  as  ended — 

"When  all  diseased  or  suspected  horses  have  been  killed,  or  when 
the  latter  have  been  declared  free  from  suspicion. 

When  the  infected  8tal)les,  utensils,  harnesses,  etc.,  have  been 
thoroughly  cleansed  and  disinfected. 


204  THE   DISEASES   OF  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

Glanders  m  Human  Beings. 

As  I  said  of  anthrax,  it  seems  to  me  indispensable  that  the  vet- 
erinarian should  also  know  the  essential  points  of  glanders  in  man. 
In  detailing  these  I  shall  give  the  facts  directly  from  Bollinger's 
description. 

Etiology. 

It  must  be  self-evident  that  equine  glanders  is  the  source  whence 
human  beings  derive  the  disease.  In  most  cases  it  is  possible  to 
trace  the  disease  to  the  cause,  although  in  some  we  are  unable  to ; 
this  latter  variety  has  been  looked  upon  in  times  past  as  of  sponta- 
neous origin. 

The  inficiens  gains  access  to  the  human  organs  by  means  of 
wounded  or  abraded  surfaces,  either  in  the  care  of  diseased  ani- 
mals, or  by  persons  examining  them,  or  by  persons  in  knackers' 
establishments,  and  occasionally  through  accident  or  sheer  careless- 
ness. In  some  cases  the  nose,  mouth,  or  eyes  may  serve  as  the 
atrium,  when  horses  snort  and  blow  such  material  into  these  cavities. 
A  few  cases  have  been  reported  where  the  bite  of  a  glandered  horse 
has  caused  infection. 

It  is  undoubtedly  a  fact  that  the  flesh  of  glandered  horses  is  in- 
fectious, as  is  proved  by  the  disease  occurring  in  lions  and  other 
animals  that  have  fed  upon  it. 

Decroix,  the  noted  hippophagist  of  France,  had  the  temerity  to 
eat  it  in  both  a  cooked  and  uncooked  condition,  and  saw  no  evil  re- 
sults therefrom.  Koll  and  others  report  cases  of  infection  of  grooms 
and  others  by  drinking  from  the  stable  water-pails,  or  by  wiping  a 
wound  with  a  rubbing-cloth,  or  among  veterinarians  by  using  one's 
handkerchief  to  wipe  the  horse's  discharge  from  off  the  clothes,  and 
then  using  it  about  the  person. 

"When  the  disease  occurs  without  any  known  locus  infectlonis, 
we  must  assume  that  it  is  through  the  aspired  air,  especially  where 
a  constitutional  complication  antedates  any  local  disturbances. 

This  has  been  observed  to  occur  in  grooms,  etc.,  especially  where 
they  sleep  in  the  stables,  or  by  the  accidental  sleeping  upon  the 
straw  which  had  been  used  to  bed  a  glandered  horse. 

In  this  regard  the  following  two  cases  are  interesting  : 

1.  A  groom  had  the  habit  of  taking  the  warm  blanket  off 
the  horse  and  replacing  it  with  another.  He  would  roll  himself 
up  in  it  perfectly  nude,  and  cover  himself  with  others,  and  thus 
sleep  in  the  stable.  The  man  acquired  glanders,  though  no  one 
had  suspected   its   existence  in  the  horse,  nor  were  there  any  ul- 


THE   nOKSE.  205 

cerations,  nasal  discharge,  or  tuuietietl  glands,  to  indicate  its  pres- 
ence. 

The  autopsy  developed  the  presence  of  pulmonary  and  constitu- 
tional glandei-s.* 

2.  This  is  a  most  rcuuirkablo  and  instructive  case.  A  family 
lived  over  a  stable,  with  steps  leading  down  from  the  tenement  by 
the  stable-door.  The  mother  had  an  infant  at  the  breast,  and  one 
day,  when  taking  it  down  to  give  it  fresh  air,  a  horse  which  was 
being  led  out  snorted  and  blew  some  discharge  from  its  nostrils  into 
the  chiUrs  face.  The  child  was  taken  ill,  and  glanders  diagnosed. 
An  elder  sister,  who  was  in  condition  to  act  as  wet-nurse,  one  day 
took  the  child  to  nurse  ;  she  had  excoriated  nipples,  and  some  of  the 
discharge  from  the  child's  nose  probably  came  in  contact  with  them. 
Both  child  and  sister  died  from  glanders.f 

3.  A  young  man  purchased  a  glandered  horse  at  Detroit,  Michi- 
gan, not  knowing  what  it  was.  lie  contracted  the  disease  and 
died. 

The  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health  have  recorded  thirteen 
eases  of  glanders,  between  the  years  1859  and  1875,  in  that  State. 

Cases  of  the  transmission  of  glanders  from  man  to  man  have 
been  rejjorted ;  one  where  a  family  of  man,  wife,  and  four  children 
all  became  diseased  from  sleeping  in  the  same  bed  with  the  father. 
Predisposition. — It  can,  in  general,  be  said  to  be  very  small, 
when  we  consider  the  frequent  occasions  offered  to  infection  to  those 
whose  business  brings  them  among  such  horses. 

In  general,  glanders  among  human  beings  may  be  said  to  be  a 
"  calling  "  disease  ;  that  is,  occurring  among  the  above-named  classes. 
Of  the  lOG  cases  collected  by  Bollinger — 
41  were  grooms. 

11  coachmen,  teamsters,  and  riders. 
14  horse-owners  and  farmers. 
10  veterinarians  and  veterinary  students. 
6  knackers. 
6  horse-butchers. 
5  soldiers. 
4  doctors. 
3  gardeners. 
2  horse-dealers. 

1  each  in  a  policeman,  shepherd,  smith,  and  an  anatomy  serv- 
ant at  a  veterinary  school. 

*  "  Mitthcilunp  an  d.  Praxis  iin  Pnussiscben  Staatc,"  187a-'80. 
\  "  Veterinary  JoumaV*  vol  ix,  p.  144. 


206  THE  DISEASES   OF  DOMESTIC  AA^IMALS. 

Incubation. — The  incubatory  period  is  from  three  to  five  days ; 
sometimes  extending  to  fourteen  days  or  three  weeks. 

Course. — The  disease  assumes  either  an  acute,  subacute,  or  chronic 

form. 

Acute  Glanders. 

Of  twenty-eight  cases,  of  which  but  one  ended  fatally,  the  aver- 
age duration,  aside  from  the  period  of  incubation,  was  16*5  days. 
Cases  of  seven  to  eight  days'  duration  are  rare ;  in  general,  it  lasts 
two  to  three  weeks,  sometimes  four. 

The  introductory  phenomena  are  frequently  a  general  feeling  of 
disturbance,  weakness,  headache,  shivering,  often  combined  with 
uncertain  pains  in  the  extremities,  especially  in  the  muscles  and 
joints. 

If  a  trauma  (wounds)  formed  the  atrium  of  the  inficiens,  we  may 
remark  on  the  locus  infectionis  hypersemia  and  inflammation  of 
the  parts ;  swelling  and  inflammation  of  the  lymphatics.  In  rare 
cases  the  disease  begins  with  shivering.  When  the  pains  are  in- 
tense  and  intermittent  or  continued,  fever  is  present.  The  ulcers 
increase,  the  edges  and  base  acquire  an  evil  appearance,  the  ulcer 
frequently  a  chancrous,  rodent  character.  "When  the  wound  is  upon 
a  finger,  the  whole  arm  may  be  the  seat  of  an  erysipelatous  or  phleg- 
monous inflammation,  which  is  often  complicated  with  pustular  or 
ulcerous  eruptions.  The  constitutional  disturbances  increase  at  the 
same  time  :  the  patient  loses  appetite  ;  the  evacuations  are  retarded ; 
the  weakness  increases  ;  the  pains  in  the  muscles  and  joints  become 
more  intense,  and  the  fever  augments. 

When  the  anamnesis  is  wanting,  and  when  the  infection  has 
taken  place  from  a  volatile  inficiens,  or  when  all  signs  of  outward 
infection  fail,  the  disease  might  often  be  mistaken  for  typhus.  As 
the  disease  progresses,  reddish  spots  appear  on  the  cutis,  which  trans- 
form into  pustules  resembling  those  of  variola  or  pemphigus.  These 
pustules  often  appear  in  great  numbers,  and  are  of  varying  dimensions. 
They  frequently  coalesce  and  form  ulcers,  giving  off  an  offensive 
odor.  Large  ulcers  often  develop  on  the  extremities,  which  extend 
to  the  sinews  and  bones.  These  cutaneous  affections  are  frequently 
so  extensive  as  to  leave  scarcely  any  part  of  the  body  uncomplicated. 
Sometimes  the  joints  become  tumefied  with  fluctuating  swellings. 
At  others  these  eruptions  appear  within  twenty-four  or  forty-eight 
hours ;  again,  only  within  two,  three,  or  four  weeks,  after  the  ap- 
pearance of  nasal  catarrh,  tumefaction  of  the  muscles,  pain,  etc. 

The  mucosae,  particularly  of  the  nose,  are  frequently  the  seat  of 
inflammatory  and  ulcerative  processes.     When  the  nose  is  compli- 


I 


THE   nORSE.  207 

cated,  we  observe  in  the  beginning  a  secretion  of  a  tliiii,  viscid,  whit- 
ish discharge  ;  swelling,  hypei-aeniia,  and  pains  in  the  nose  and  sur- 
ronndings,  gradually  develop.  The  nasal  discharge  is  fre(piontly  uni- 
lateral, and  later  becomes  thicker,  niuco-purulent,  and  ofTensive.  In 
a  few  eases  nodules  may  be  diagnosed.  In  many  cases  we  can  diagnose, 
intra  ritain,  the  development  of  pustules  and  ulcers  in  the  nasal 
mucosa,  which  in  malignant  cases  lead  to  erosions  of  the  perichon- 
drium and  perforation  of  septum.  The  uni-  or  bilateral  nasal  dis- 
charge appears  often  oidy  after  two  or  three  weeks,  coeval  with  dif- 
fuse redness  of  the  nose,  which  may  extend  over  the  face  and  fore- 
head. In  few  cases  the  nasal  discharge  fails,  although  nodular  erup- 
tions take  place. 

As  in  the  horse,  so  in  man,  we  frequently  observe  that  the  nasal 
affection  appears  to  he  the  closing  complication  of  the  disease. 

Later,  or  coeval  with  the  cutaneous  erujitions,  there  develop 
catarrh  and  inflammatory  ulcerative  processes  in  the  other  mucosas, 
which  stand  in  more  or  less  intimate  connection  with  that  of  the 
nose,  as  in  the  conjunctiva,  the  mouth,  (esophagus,  and  trachea.  In 
some  cases  abscesses  develop  in  the  joints,  j)articularly  those  of  the 
hands.  The  submaxillary  and  lingual  glands,  which  often  contain 
abscesses,  become  swollen  and  painful.  The  respiratory  tract  is  fre- 
qnently  the  seat  of  serious  complications,  such  as  bronchial  catarrh, 
with  accompanying  symptoms.  The  pulse  is  small  and  frequent ; 
the  temperature  increases  to  over  4:0°  C. 

The  participation  of  the  nervous  system  is  made  evident  by 
vertigo,  headache,  ringing  in  the  ears,  want  of  sleep,  uneasiness, 
somnolence,  delirium,  etc.  Albumen  is  sometimes  present  in  the 
urine.     In  pregnant  females,  abortion  often  takes  place. 

Chronic  (Jlaxders 

Assumes  the 'above  characteristics  in  varying  form  and  less  rapid 
development.  The  medium  duration — recovery  is  qtiite  frequent, 
slow,  and  incomplete — extends  over  four  months. 

Pathohxjical  Anatonnj. — In  this  regard  the  })hcnonicna  in  man 
bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  those  of  pynemia. 

The  chief  difference  between  those  of  man  and  horses  is  the 
greater  prevalence  of  tubercular  eruptions  in  the  fonncr;  other- 
wise we  have  almoet  similar  conditions,  except  the  greater  tendency 
to  abscesses  in  man. 

I)iagno»is. — This,  when  the  cause  is  kno\vn,  is  easy,  otherwise 
often  very  difficult,  especially  on  account  of  the  resemblance  of  the 
processes  to  those  of  pytemia. 


208  THE   DISEASES   OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS! 

Prognosis.— This  is  far  more  favorable  tliau  in  tlie  horse,  al- 
though in  the  acute  form  it  is  generally  fatal. 

Of  38  cases  of  acute  glanders,  healing  by 1 

Of  7  cases  of  subacute  glanders,  healing  by 2 

Of  34  cases  of  chronic  glanders,  healing  by 17 

Therapeutics. — This  belongs  to  medical  men. 

Prevention. — Keep  down  equine  glanders,  and  see  to  .the  proper 
instruction  of  .those  about  horses,  that  they  exercise  great  care  about 
those  having  glanders,  or  in  which  it  is  suspected. 


PART  n. 

THE  HISTORY  OF  YETERIXART 
MEDIOI]S^E. 


In  the  foregoing  pages  I  have  endeavored  to  place  before  the 
public  some  of  the  principal  dangers  to  which  mankind  is  liable 
froni  animal  diseases  themselves,  or  from  jiarasites  vi'hich,  while  in- 
fecting the  so-called  lower  animal  organism,  do  not  in  some  instances 
cause  any  very  serious  disturbances ;  still,  when  introduced  into  the 
human  organism,  may  cause  disturbances  of  a  very  serious  if  not 
of  an  absolutely  mortal  character. 

The  only  known  means  by  which  prevention  of  these  disturb- 
ances, or  maladies,  may  be  hoped  for,  is  by  the  enactment  of  laws 
and  regulations  by  the  different  State  governments — which  should, 
however,  be  uniform  in  all  States.  These  laws  and  regulations 
should  be  rigidly  executed.  Their  execution,  however,  does  not 
come  within  the  province  of  liuman  medicine  per  se.  It  belongs 
to  another  branch  of  medical  science,  which  has  been,  up  to  the  pres- 
ent time,  utterly  neglected  by  the  people  of  this  country,  whether 
represented  by  the  respective  State  governments  or  by  the  General 
Government  at  Washington.  Coming  under  the  same  liead,  and 
therefore  to  be  considered  with  it,  are  the  sujiprcssion  and  preven- 
tion of  those  ravaging  animal  pests  which  in  past  ages  have  almost 
depopulated  the  older  Continental  nations  of  their  animal  wealth, 
and  which  can  any  day  be  landed  uptm  our  shores  ;  in  fact,  as  T  have 
already  shown,  some  of  them  are  already  "domesticated"  with  us, 
and  the  sole  reason  that  their  real  nature  and  their  ravages  among 
our  animals  are  not  more  immediately  felt  by  the  American  people 
is  the  utter  failure  of  reliable  statistics  upon  the  subject  to  bring 
it  home  to  every  American  statesman  and  citizen  as  well. 

The  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  at  Washington,  gave  out,  for 
the  year  1S70,  a  pamphlet  entitled  "  Investigations  of  Diseases  of 
Swine,  and  Infectious  and  Contagious  Diseases  incident  to  other 

14 


210  THE   HISTORY   OF   VETERINARY   MEDICINE. 

Classes  of  Domestic  Animals."  The  title  is  Mgh-sounding  enougb, 
but  while  Messrs.  Law  and  Detmers,  veterinarians,  give  us  some 
valuable  knowledge  with  reference  to  one  contagioinfectious  dis- 
ease of  swine,  the  so-called  "hog-cholera,"  the  "report"  is  abso- 
lutely wanting  in  any  reliable  statistics  with  reference  to  the  same. 
I^umerous  medical  men  have  also  given  contributions  with  reference 
to  this  swine-disease,  many  of  which  are  most  absurd  :  for  instance, 
calling  it  "typhus,"  and  comparing  it  with  the  specific  infectious 
disease  of  man  known  by  that  name.  Veterinary-Surgeon  Det- 
mers also  gives  a  compilation  with  reference  to  the  glanders  of  the 
horse.  Aside  from  the  pleuro-pneumonia  of  cattle,  no  other  conta- 
gious disease  of  our  animals  is  mentioned  in  the  report.  This  is  not 
to  be  wondered  at.  In  a  country  where  there  are  very  few  well- 
educated  veterinary  surgeons,  where  there  is  no  appreciation  of  the 
true  value  of  veterinary  science ;  in  a  country  where  quacks  and 
empirics  of  every  form  are  nourished  and  appreciated  before  the 
well-educated  practitioners,  in  only  too  many  instances  ;  in  a  coun- 
try where  there  is  no  official  examination  of  the  products  from  food- 
producing  animals,  and  where  there  are  neither  laws  nor  regulations 
for  the  suppression  of  contagious  animal  diseases ;  in  a  country  boast- 
ing, as  it  does,  of  its  civilization  and  the  extent  of  education  among 
its  people,  where  there  is  no  well-organized  veterinary  school,  or  a 
medical  school  devoted  exclusively  to  the  scientific  study  and  devel- 
opment of  science,  and  regulated  by  the  State — it  is  not  surprising 
that  it  is  impossible  for  the  Government  to  gather  rehable,  or  any, 
statistics  with  reference  to  the  devastations  caused  by  pests  among 
its  animals. 

The  j)revention  of  the  already  desGribed  human  diseases  due  to 
causes  originating  in  our  domestic  animals,  the  suppression  and 
^prevention  of  devastating  aniinal  jpests,  can  only  5<3  attained  hy  the 
developtnent  of  veterinary  science,  and  at  the  hands  of  scientifically 
educated  veterinarians. 

This  can  only  he  attained  hy  having  a  completely  organized  and 
State-7^egulated  veterinary  institute,  and  for  reasons  vohich  I  shall 
presently  give.  One  national  institute  is  far  more  in  the  interests 
of  tJie  people  of  this  country  than  State  institutes. 

Before,  however,  entering  upon  the  discussion  of  that  subject,  it 
is  not  inappropriate  to  cursorily  trace  the  history  of  veterinary  medi- 
cine from  its  beginning  to  our  time.  The  history  of  veterinary 
medicine  per  se  can  be  logically  divided  into  two  periods  :  the 
ante-school,  or  crude,  empirical  period,  extending  from  the  earliest 
antiquity  to  the  year  1Y62 ;  and  the  scholastic  or  educational  period, 


THE   niSTORY   OF   VETEUIXARY    MEDICINE.  o^^ 

extending  from  that  date  to  our  own  day.  Both  of  these  periods 
are  capable  of  subdivision.  The  pre-scholastic  period  nuiy  be  sub- 
divided into  the  ante-Greek,  the  Grreco-Ronian,  and  tlie  period  of 
the  "Stahhneisters,"  "  niaresdial/' <jr  master  of  the  hoi*se,  ^vhile 
the  schohistic  period  may  be  divided  into  tlie  educational-empiric 
and  the  scientific  educational,  which  saw  its  birth  about  thirty  years 
ago. 

"  Westward  the  march  of  empire  takes  its  way  I  "  So  true  as 
this  is,  it  is  no  less  true  that  with  the  "  westward  "  movement  of 
humanity  and  civilization,  the  contagious  and  ravaging  pests  which 
have  preyed  and  still  continue  to  prey  upon  a  suffering  human  and 
animal  world  have  kept  up  a  uniform  extension.  So  it  is  of  sci- 
ence. So  it  is  with  the  endeavor  of  medical  science — prevention. 
So  it  will  be  with  that  branch  of  medical  science  M'hich  I  am  en- 
deavoring, however  unsuccessfully,  faithfully  to  represent — veteri- 
nary medicine. 

Philologists  have  taught  us  that  the  civilized  races  of  the  day 
took  their  rise  from  the  Aryans,  a  pastoral  people  who  conquered 
the  nomad  tribes  living  on  the  high  plateaus  of  the  Caucasus  Mount- 
ains in  the  north  of  India.  These  Aryans  attained  a  wonderful  de- 
gree of  civilization,  which  is  detailed  to  us  in  records  of  an  age  some 
1000  years  b.  c.  "With  their  civilization  was  mixed  an  immense 
amount  of  superstition,  a  great  awe  and  reverence  for  all  the  start- 
ling phenomena  of  nature,  as  well  as  all  natural  creations.  These 
records  are  ingrafted  in  the  beautiful  poems  of  the  "Artharva,'' 
"  Rig  "  and  '*  Ayur  Yeda,"  the  last  meaning  the  "  Science  of  Life," 
and  the  great  war-poem,  the  "  Mahabharata." 

The  reverence  which  these  people  bore  to  their  Brahmans,  as  the 
ministers  of  their  gods,  and  their  worship  of  the  sacred  cow,  and 
tender  care  of  all  animal  life,  are  well  known  to  the  student  of  these 
ancient  writings.  "With  suffering  comes  naturally  an  immediate 
search  for  relief.  Behold,  then,  the  birth  of  empiricism  I  The  re- 
sults of  these  experiences  were  handed  down  from  mouth  to  mouth ; 
these  sayings  being  frequently  collected  and  recited  for  the  benefit 
of  the  people  by  the  priests  and  wise  men.  The  wealth  of  these 
early  people,  and  also  of  many  of  their  immediate  descendants  of 
our  day,  was  in  their  immense  herds  of  grazing  animals.  Fleming, 
"  Animal  Plagues,''  says :  "  The  immense  steppes  of  Central  Asia 
still  furnish  us  with  examples  of  this  condition  of  the  unsettled 
races  who  wander  over  them  with  their  countless  herds."  A  recent 
traveler*  in  that  region  of  the  world  pleasantly  describes  some  of 

♦  Atkinson,  "Oriental  and  Western  Siberia." 


212  THE  HISTORY  OF  VETERINARY  MEDICINE. 

tlie  scenes  he  witnessed  among  them :  "  Just  as  the  day  dawned  I 
turned  out  to  examine  our  position,  when  I  discovered  the  snowy 
peaks  of  the  Sian-Shan.  They  appeared  cold  and  ghost-like  against 
the  deep-blue  sky ;  presently  they  were  tipped  with  the  sun's  rays, 
and  shone  forth  like  rubies.  I  sat  on  the  ground,  watching  the 
changes  with  much  interest,  till  the  whole  landscape  was  lighted 
up.  Immediately  near  me  was  a  busy  scene ;  on  one  side  the  men 
were  milking  the  mares,  to  the  number  of  more  than  one  hundred, 
and  carrying  leathern  pails  of  milk  to  the  'koumiss'  bag  in  the 
'  yourt,'  the  young  foals  being  secured  in  two  long  lines  to  pegs 
driven  in  the  ground.  In  front,  and  on  the  opposite  side,  the 
women  were  milking  cows,  sheep,  and  goats,  and  a  little  distance 
beyond  these  the  camels  were  suckling  their  young.  Around  the 
camp  the  steppe  was  filled  with  animal  life.  The  sultan  told  me 
that  there  were  more  than  two  thousand  horses,  half  the  number 
of  cows  and  oxen,  two  hundred  and  eighty  camels,  and  more  than 
six  thousand  sheep  and  goats.  The  screams  of  the  camels,  the  bel- 
lowing of  the  bulls,  the  neighing  of  the  horses,  and  bleating  of  the 
sheep  and  goats,  formed  a  pastoral  chorus  such  as  I  had  never  heard 
in  Europe."  On  another  occasion  he  writes  :  "  All  were  out  with 
the  dawn,  and  then  appeared  a  scene  highly  interesting  to  me.  The 
whole  of  the  herds  are  brought  to  the  '  aoul '  at  night,  where  they 
are  most  carefully  guarded  by  watchmen  and  dogs  placed  in  every 
direction,  rendering  it  almost  impossible  to  enter  any  '  aoul '  with- 
out detection.  The  noise  at  first  was  almost  intolerable  ;  there  was 
the  sharp  cry  of  the  camels,  the  neighing  of  the  horses,  the  bellow- 
ing of  the  bulls,  and  the  barking  of  the  dogs,  and  shouting  of  the 
men.  I  counted  one  hundred  and  six  camels,  including  their  young; 
there  were  more  than  two  thousand  horses,  one  thousand  oxen  and 
cows,  and  six  thousand  sheep  and  goats.  Even  these,  large  as  the 
number  may  appear,  were  far  short  of  the  total  number  belonging 
to  the  patriarch  chief.  It  was,  indeed,  a  wonderful  sight,  when  they 
were  marched  off  in  different  directions,  spreading  themselves  out 
in  living  streams  as  they  moved  slowly  along  the  steppe." 

Disease  then,  as  now,  especially  the  ravaging  pests,  robbed  these 
early  agriculturists,  not  only  of  their  means  of  sustenance,  but  of 
their  wealth.  As  in  our  day,  when  such  visitations  endanger  the 
animal  property  of  the  people  of  a  country,  so  in  those  by-gone 
days  did  our  Aryan  fathers  appeal  to  the  gods  for  protection,  and 
make  choice  offerings  from  the  fairest  and  best  of  their  flocks  for 
their  amelioration.  They  knew  nothing  oi  prevention,  in  a  modern 
sense.     The  gods  were  manifesting  their  anger,  and  wreaking  their 


TUE    HISTORY    OF   YETEKINARY    MEDICINE.  213 

wrath  on  the  children  of  men.  Appeasement  was  their  only  source; 
and,  at  the  cessation  of  the  ravages,  choice  oiferings  of  thankful- 
ness betokened  the  gratitude  of  sutfering  man. 

"  Charaka"  and  "  Susruta'' are  the  names  which  have  come  to 
118  of  the  two  earliest  medical  authors  in  the  Sanskrit  tongue. 

The  earliest  source  from  which  our  knowledge  of  Indian  medi- 
cine is  derived  is  taken  from  the  hynms  of  the  "Rig -Veda,"  about 
1500  n.  I'.*  lu  the  "  Artharva-Yeda''  diseases  are  looked  upon  as 
evil  spirits  which  overcome  human  beings,  or  as  the  results  of  the 
displeai^ure  of  the  gods,  or  as  the  intiuences  of  the  sorceries  of  wicked 
men.  The  most  wonderful  healing  attributes  were  accorded  to  the 
soma-plant.  The  Aswin,  a  twin  god,  were  looked  upon  as  Ilygeia 
by  the  Greeks,  i.  e.,  as  the  gods  of  health  :  they  made  the  lap  of 
woman  fruitful ;  they  knew  the  plants  which  were  endowed  with 
health-giving  properties  ;  they  kept  the  altar-fires  burning.  At  a 
later  period  they  are  described  as  the  physicians  of  the  gods.  Be- 
sides them,  the  god  Agni,  the  god  of  lire,  was  looked  upon  as  the 
new  awakening  of  spring ;  Rudra,  of  the  air,  the  winds,  and  the 
earth. 

These  early  authors  also  ascribed  healing  qualities  to  the  action 
of  cold  water : 

"  Two  winds  move  slowly  here  and  there,  from  ocean,  and  from  distant  lands ; 
Power  move  thee,  move  thy  suffering  forth ; 

"Wind,  move  healing  this  one  to,  and  move,  wind,  his  suffering  forth. 
The  gods  have  thee  hither  sent  with  all  the  means  of  healing  overspent." 

•'  Full  of  healing  power  is  the  watery  wave ;  the  water  cools  the  fever's  heat : 
Full  of  healing  power  against  all  pests,  health  bring  to  thee  the  water's  flood." 

"  The  good  magi  are  under  the  protection  of  gods,  in  order  that 
they  may  combat  evil  spirits." 

The  essence  of  life  is  embodied  in  the  air  (the  respiration). 
Vital  Power,  Vital  Spirit,  are  often  spoken  of.  The  doctor  per  se 
\9.  only  mentioned  in  the  more  recent  sections  of  tlic  "Rig -Veda." 
"  The  wishes  of  men  vary  :  the  wagoner  seeks  for  wood,  the  doctor 
for  patients,  and  the  priest  for  libations." 

In  the  Hrahmanical  period  of  the  Aryan  people,  the  priests  ap- 
pear to  have  also  busied  tliemselves  with  the  practice  of  healing. 
At  this  period  the  doctor  seems  to  have  taken  a  much-respected 
place  among  these  people.      A  completely  educated  doctor  must 

*  Tills   information  with   regard   to  ancient   medical   history  \^  taken   from  TTaescr, 
"  Gcachichtc  dcr  Mcdicin." 


214:  THE   HISTORY   OF  VETERINARY   MEDICINE. 

command  all  the  principles  and  practice  of  medicine.  Susruta  says 
that  "  the  practitioner  who  does  not  perfectly  unite  in  himseK  a 
knowledge  of  both  surgical  and  inner  diseases  is  as  a  bird  with 
but  one  wing." 

The  studies  of  the  medical  student  began  with  the  twelfth  and 
ended  with  the  sixteenth  or  seventeenth  year.  At  no  one  time 
should  a  teacher  instruct  more  than  four  or  at  the  most  six  stu- 
dents. Charaka  gives  the  rules  for  instruction  in  detail,  and  the 
requirements  necessary  to  both  teacher  and  student,  in  a  manner  not 
unworthy  of  imitation,  in  many  respects,  by  the  same  classes  in  our 
own  day  and  country. 

He  says :  "  The  student  must,  above  all,  pay  great  attention  to  se- 
lection of  the  most  suitable  text-books  from  the  great  number  which 
are  jDresented  to  him  ;  he  must  select  a  teacher  who  is  famiKar  with 
all  the  scientific,  technical,  and  moral  qualifications  of  his  profes- 
sion. He  must  devote  himself  unceasingly  to  the  study  of  the  text- 
books of  his  profession.  The  teacher  must  not  be  less  circumspect 
in  the  selection  of  students  of  honorable  birth,  morality,  physique, 
and  intellectual  and  manual  ability.  The  students  must  begin  their 
studies  in  winter,  and  at  a  time  when  the  moon  is  becoming  full ; 
on  a  day  known  in  the  calendar  as  favorable,  and  at  a  time  when  a 
favorable  constellation  is  in  the  ascendency  ;  they  must  be  introduced 
into  their  profession  in  the  presence  of  the  holy  Brahmans  and  the 
doctors,  and  with  the  offering  of  milk,  butter,  prayers,  and  sayings 
of  wise  men,  and  presents  to  his  teachers.  The  celebration  should 
end  with  an  address  to  the  students  by  the  teachers,  in  which  they 
should  be  cautioned  to  be  chaste,  modest,  and  reticent,  to  wear  a 
beard,  to  speak  the  truth  only,  to  eat  no  meat ;  above  all  things 
should  they  be  obedient  to  their  teacher,  and  endeavor  to  gain  favor 
in  his  eyes.  The  practitioner  who  wishes  to  have  a  successful  prac- 
tice and  to  acquire  an  honorable  name,  must  look  to  the  health  of 
the  living ;  above  all,  that  of  the  holy  Brahmans  and  the  sacred  cow, 
and  pray  daily  at  the  time  of  his  uprising  and  retiring.  He  must 
seek,  vrith  all  the  strength  of  his  soul,  to  restore  the  sick  to  health ; 
though  his  own  life  be  called  in  sacrifice  thereby,  he  dare  not 
on  any  account  neglect  the  sick ;  he  must  never  seek  to  ingratiate 
himseK  with  women.  In  dress  and  all  external  things  he  must  be 
simple,  no  drinker,  and  must  always  remain  distant  from  bad  com- 
pany. In  speech  the  practitioner  must  be  gentle,  clear,  and  pleas- 
ant, speaking  only  to  the  point,  and  with  moderation  ;  he  must 
weigh  seriously  the  appropriate  time  and  locality ;  must  be  diligent 
in  reflection,  and  seek  in  every  way  to  increase  in  knowledge.     He 


THE   HISTORY   OF   VETERINARY   MEDICINE.  215 

must  never  oiler  help  to  perilous  tli;it  luive  nuide  themselves  disagree- 
able to  the  king,  or  to  the  people;  or  ofi'er  assistuuee  to  defornietl 
people,  deteriorated,  unruly,  or  wild  persons,  or  even  to  women, 
when  their  husband  is  absent.  The  student  must  never  accept  a 
present  from  a  wife,  except  with  the  permission  of  the  husband. 
When  he  enters  a  residence,  it  must  be  in  the  company  of  an  au- 
thorized person ;  he  must  be  well  clad,  and  enter  with  bowed  head, 
reflecting,  and  with  full  dignity  take  due  cognizance  of  all  the  sur- 
roundings. Once  in  the  sick-chamber,  his  whole  attention  must  be 
given  to  the  treatment  of  the  patient.  The  things  going  on  in  the 
house  of  the  patient  nnist  never  be  advertised  abroad  ;  he  must 
never  inform  a  patient  that  a  fatal  termination  to  his  illness  is  ap- 
proaching. The  most  learned  man  must  never  seek  to  impress  upon 
others  the  idea  of  his  own  importance.  Many  pei^sons  withdraw 
themselves  from  such  men,  however  capable  they  may  be.  The  sci- 
ence of  medicine  is,  in  all  truth,  not  so  easy  of  acquisition.  He 
nmst  ever  be  willing  to  learn  from  the  experience  and  knowledge 
of  others.  To  the  earnest  man  the  whole  world  is  full  of  teaching  ; 
only  to  the  ignorant  is  she  an  enemy.  With  this  in  remembrance, 
even  the  words  of  an  enemy  may  be  conducive  to  the  good  of  many. 
He  must  religiously  observe  every  duty  to  the  gods,  the  fire,  the 
holy  Brahmans,  the  Guru,  the  aged,  and  the  holy  teacher.  "WTien 
this  is  done,  then  shalt  thou  be  favored  by  the  tire,  the  fluids,  and 
the  gods.  AVhen  not,  thy  life  shall  be  unsuccessful.  When  this 
has  all  been  said,  the  teacher  shall  respond,  '  So  shall  it  be.' " 

Susruta  gave  similar  advice  to  that  already  given  by  Charaka, 
to  the  students  of  medicine.  lie  says :  "  They  must  utterly  abstain 
from  love  and  hate,  from  anger  and  laziness,  and  from  greed  for  gain. 
They  must  pay  consideration  to  external  appearances,  and  have 
care  that  their  clothing  is  appropriate  and  cleanly.  They  must 
be  servants  of  the  truth.  They  must  show  the  same  respect  as  to 
their  parents,  to  the  Brahmans,  to  their  teacher  in  medicine,  to  their 
friends,  and  to  all  those  who  turn  to  them  for  help.  The  doctor 
must  wear  his  hair  short ;  his  nails  must  be  clean  and  closely  cut ; 
he  must  never  leave  his  house  except  with  his  cane  or  sun-shade ; 
above  all,  must  he  avoid  all  undue  intimacy  with  women.  He  must 
be  handsome,  well  built,  amiable,  earnest,  but  without  self-conceit, 
friendly,  and  full  of  spirit ;  his  speech  must  be  soft  yet  encourag- 
ing, as  that  of  a  friend ;  his  heart  must  be  pure  and  honorable ;  he 
must  be  a  pattern  of  cleverness  and  sagacity,  and  must  love  his  pa- 
tients better  than  relations,  friends,  or  his  parents.  One  may  have 
fear  of  a  brother,  a  mother,  or  a  f i  lend,  but  never  of  his  doctor. 


216  THE   HISTORY   OF  VETERINARY   MEDICINE. 

The  teacher  shall  read  from  the  holy  books  step  by  step,  and  verse 
by  verse ;  he  must  speak  distinctly,  but  without  undue  exertion, 
neither  too  rapidly  nor  too  slowly,  neither  through  the  nose,  nor 
with  any  indications  of  impatience." 

The  theoretical  education  of  the  student  took  place  in  the  open 
air,  frequently  in  groves.  The  practical  instruction  consisted  in  the 
visiting  of  patients,  the  practice  of  surgical  operations  upon  models 
made  of  wood  covered  with  wax,  also  on  soft  fruits,  and  the  punc- 
ture of  leather  sacks ;  the  extraction  of  teeth  was  practiced  on  the 
dead  body  and  upon  animals.  The  students  also  accompanied  the 
teacher  on  journeys  in  search  of  medicines,  and  to  study  the  dis- 
eases of  other  regions.  In  order  to  practice  his  profession,  it  was 
necessary  that  the  stndent  had  the  consent  of  the  rajah  (ruler),  who 
watched  over  the  execution  of  the  regulations  for  the  j)ractice  of 
medicine. 

We  see  here  that  these  Aryans  were  further  advanced  in  some 
things  even  than  the  enlightened  citizens  of  this  boasted  country, 
for  they  did  not  allow  even  the  graduated  student  to  practice  medi- 
cine without  the  consent  of  the  recognized  authority ;  and,  further, 
the  practice  of  medicine  was  regulated  by  the  authorities.  Quacks 
and  empirics  probably,  then  as  now,  were  vampires  of  civilization, 
sucking  the  life-blood  of  the  people ;  but,  nevertheless,  the  people 
had  means  of  distinguishing  the  accredited  man  from  the  swindler, 
and  the  title  of  "  doctor  "  was  worth  something  more  than  the  paper 
it  was  written  on,  which  is  not  at  present  the  case  in  the  United 
States  of  America. 

"iVb^  seldom,  however,  through  the  carelessness  of  the  rajah, 
imsuitdble  doctors  were  admitted  to  2^'>"<^Gtice.  Such  men  flatter  the 
friends  of  the  sicJc,  are  very  attentive,  take  less  pay,  are  boldfaced, 
and  never  attribute  the  poor  results  of  their  practice  to  their  own 
ignorance.  The  educated  practitioner  must  flee  the  company  of 
such  men  as  a  thicTcet  full  of  ravenous  animals.  The  reward  of 
the  practitioner  must  be  ordered  according  to  the  means  of  the  pa- 
tients. It  is  dishonorable  to  demand  pay  of  Brahmans,  relations, 
friends,  and  the  unfortunate.  The  doctor  shall  take  no  other  pay 
from  women  than  refreshment.  The  kings  have  especial  doctors^ 
who  take  part  in  the  wars ;  others  must  be  present  in  the  kitchen 
to  prevent  poisoning." 

In  the  "  Laws  of  Manu "  it  is  written  that  "  the  doctor  who 
mishandles  animals  shall  receive  the  lowest,  while  he  who  mistreats 
human  beings  shall  receive  the  highest  punishment." 

The  Indian  doctors  possessed  but  little  real  knowledge  of  anato- 


THE   HISTORY   OF  VETERINARY   MEDICINT:.  0|7 

mj.  They,  however,  made  studies  upon  the  huuian  body,  hut  in  a 
singular  and  unfruitful  manner.  The  body  must  be  that  of  a  healtliy 
man,  not  too  old,  not  deformed,  and  from  a  person  that  had  not 
died  from  poisoning  or  tlie  devastations  of  a  long  and  wearing  dis- 
ease. The  body  nmst  lie  for  seven  days  and  nights  in  the  watere 
of  a  brook,  and  then  the  outer  parts  must  be  removed  by  brushing 
with  twigs.  Instead  of  a  description  of  the  different  parts  of  the 
body,  we  find  numerous  calculations,  measurements,  and  classitica- 
tions  of  the  parts.  According  to  Susruta,  the  human  body  consists 
of  seven  elements,  and  seven  skins  or  membranes,  three  hundred 
bones,  twenty-four  nerves,  three  fluids,  one  hundred  and  seven 
joints,  nine  hundred  ligaments,  ninety  sinews  (the  nails  were  looked 
upon  as  the  endings  of  the  same),  forty  principal  vessels,  seven  hun- 
dred branches,  and  five  hundred  muscles.  The  navel  was  looked 
upon  as  the  central  point  of  the  nerves  and  vessels.  The  cardinal 
elements,  air,  gall,  and  mucus,  find  frequent  mention.  The  air  is 
situated  below  the  navel,  the  gall  between  the  navel  and  heart,  and 
the  mucus  above  the  heart.  To  the  elements  making  up  the  human 
organism  was  also  added  ether,  out  of  which  sprang  light,  out  of 
light  generated  water,  and  out  of  them  both  earth.  The  seven  or- 
ganic products  of  these  cardinal  elements  were  the  chyle,  blood, 
flesh,  cellular  tissue,  bones,  the  medullary  substance,  and  tlie  semen. 
The  blood  generated  from  the  chyle.  The  chyle  is  an  aqueous 
fluid ;  it  becomes  red  in  the  spleen  and  liver.  Milk  formed  the 
exclusive  article  of  food  to  the  end  of  the  first  year ;  to  the  third 
year,  milk  and  rice ;  and  to  the  fifteenth,  rice  alone,  when  a  mixed 
diet  was  allowed.  Tiie  best  means  for  the  preservation  of  health 
are  the  weekly  offering  of  an  emetic,  montlily  a  purgative,  and  twice 
yearly  (at  the  change  of  seasons)  blood-letting.  Diseases  were 
classed  as  natural  and  supernatural.  Diseases  were  frequently 
caused  by  sin.  The  most  important  diseases  were  due  to  a  want  of 
or  surplus  of  action  of  the  cardinal  elements  upon  the  jihysiological 
elements— the  chyle,  blood,  etc.  The  predominance  of  one  cardinal 
element  over  the  others  gave  rise  to  the  different  temperaments. 
The  soul  seeks  to  equalize  the  disharmony,  dyserasies  of  the  cardi- 
nal elements,  by  which  disease  is  produced.  Disease  is,  therefore, 
a  disturbance  of  tlie  activity  of  the  soul  occasioned  by  abnormalities 
of  the  cardinal  elements.  The  air  contained  in  the  body  is  the 
cause  of  eighty  different  diseases.  To  these  belong  the  diseases  of 
the  nerves — tetanus,  trismus,  chorea,  also  leprosy.  Among  the  dis- 
eases of  the  urinary  organs  one  is  surprised  to  find  that  a  sweet  and 
albuminous  urine  is  mentioned.    Diabetes  was  considered  incurable. 


218  THE  HISTORY   OF   VETERINARY   MEDICINE. 

A  knowledge  of  poisons  and  their  action  is  an  indispensable  part 
of  the  education  of  the  doctor,  as  the  food  is  often  poisoned  by  the 
enemies  of  the  ruler,  wicked  women,  and  unthankful  servants. 
These  ancient  Indian  doctors  seem  to  have  been  well  acquainted 
with  hydrophobia,  as  the  action  of  the  bite  of  the  rabid  dog,  fox, 
jackal,  wolf,  bear,  and  tiger.  The  treatment  consisted  in  appro- 
priate local  applications  to  the  wound,  and  the  inward  offering  of 
antidotes. 

In  this  regard  Wise  *  says : 

"  The  Bites  of  Mad  Dogs. — When  dogs,  jackals,  foxes,  wolves, 
bears,  or  tigers,  become  mad,  they  foam  at  the  mouth,  which  re- 
mains open,  their  tails  bang  down,  they  do  not  hear  or  see  well, 
and  saliva  flows  from  their  mouths.  In  such  a  state  they  snap  at 
and  bite  one  another.  The  part  that  is  bitten  becomes  senseless, 
blood  flows  from  the  wound,  which  becomes  black,  and  other  ap- 
pearances are  observed,  as  after  a  wound  with  a  poisoned  arrow. 
The  ])erson  hitteii  makes  tJie  same  hind  of  noise  and  movements  as 
that  of  the  anim^al  which  has  bitten  him.  IVheii  such  a  person  sees 
the  shape  of  the  animal  which  has  hitten  him,  either  in  water  or  in 
a  glass,  it  is  an  unfavorable  symptom.  It  is  also  iinfavorahle  wJien 
the  person  is  afraid  of  water,  and  dreads  either  seeing  or  hearing 
it.  This  is  called  hydrophobia,  the  fear  of  water.  When  the  per- 
son dreams  of  the  rabid  animal,  it  is  unfavorable.  Toward  the  ter- 
mination of  the  disease  the  person  is  convulsed,  becomes  insensible 
and  powerless,  and  dies." 

"  In  all  such  cases  the  first  part  of  treatment  should  be  to  scari- 
fy the  part  and  squeeze  out  the  blood,  after  which  the  p>art  is  to  be 
washed  and  burned  by  means  of  hot  '  ghee^  Then  apply  to  the 
wounded  part  a  mixture  of  certain  antidotes,  and  give  old  '  ghee ' 
internally.  Errhines  are  also  to  be  given  with  the  milk  of  the  arka- 
plant,  Calatropis  giyantea.  Susruta  recommends  the  following, 
which  is  to  be  used  both  internally  and  externally  :  Take  of  '  Shir- 
isha,'  '  Kustha,'  '  Haridra,'  '  Shita,'  '  Sharshapa,'  of  each  forty  ratas, 
mix  in  a  pint  of  water,  and  boil  until  reduced  one  fourth.  During 
the  treatment  the  patient  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  situation,  without 
any  water.  When  the  symptoms  disappear,  the  person  should  then 
bathe,  and  on  the  third  and  fifth  days  the  above  is  to  be  administered 
in  half  the  dose  given  at  first.  He  is  then  to  take  rice  and  milk. 
It  is  recommended  in  these  cases  to  act  powerfully  upon  the  system 
by  strong  medicines  before  the  poison  has  produced  its  constitu- 
tional effects.     After  the  infliction  of  the  wound,  and  before  it  has 

*  "  History  of  Medicine  in  India,"  vol.  i,  p.  280. 


TDE   HISTORY    OF   VETERINARY    MEDICINE.  219 

produced  any  <;oncrul  effects,  the  free  use  of  water  in  batliin«j^  is 
reconiiuended,  anil  the  bowels  are  to  be  afterward  opened  by  purga- 
tives and  emetics,  followed  by  errhines  to  clear  the  passages." 

The  perfection  to  which  the  Aryan  doctors  developed  the  prac- 
tice of  surgery  is  surprising  indeed.  They  made  many  useful 
instniments,  catlieterized  the  bladder,  removed  stones,  punctured 
the  abdomen,  originated  plastic  operations  upon  the  nose,  ear,  and 
lips,  set  fractured  bones,  performed  "  laparotomy,''  and  made  skill- 
ful operations  upon  the  eye.  The  Caesarean  operation  was  per- 
formed on  the  death  of  the  mother  to  save  the  infant. 

The  beginners  of  veterinary  medicine,  or,  rather,  those  who  firet 
practiced  the  liealing  art  upon  animals,  were  undoubtedly  the  shep- 
herds and  lierdsmen,  who  were  intrusted  with  their  care.  This  em- 
ployment was  frequently  followed  in  families,  and  the  results  of 
experience  thus  gained  were  doubtless  transmitted  from  father  to 
son  for  generations.  These  early  veterinary  empirics  must  fre- 
quently have  come  in  friendly  intercourse,  and  thus  the  results  of 
nnitual  experiences  were  interchanged  and  criticised ;  so  the  fund  of 
empirical  knowledge  gradually  increased,  until  the  sum  of  these 
experiences  was  linally  gathered  on  parchment,  and  then,  with  the 
birth  of  printing,  into  books.  While  many  of  these  men  were  un- 
doubtedly keen  observers  of  nature,  there  is  no  doubt  that  they 
were  also  great  admirei's  of  the  marvelous,  and  equally  superstitious, 
so  that  many  most  absurd  superstitions  as  to  the  causes  of  disease 
crept  into  their  sayings  and  writings. 

Charaka  is  said  to  have  written  a  work  upon  the  diseases  of  ani- 
mals, but  I  have  vainly  searched  for  any  quotations  from  it.  That 
the  Jews  and  Egyptians  were  acquainted  with  many  forms  of  animal 
disease  must  be  known  to  every  reader  of  the  Bible,  for  the  plagues 
with  which  Jehovah  punished  the  Egyptians,  and  through  which 
they  were  robl)ed  of  tlieir  cattle,  are  most  graphically  described  by 
Moses.  The  oldest  Egyptian  monuments  bear  upon  them  carvings 
illustrating  the  treatment  of  animals. 

The  Greeks  possessed,  at  a  very  early  date,  a  more  or  less  ex- 
tended literature  with  reference  to  the  treatment  of  the  diseases  of 
animals.  With  the  blooming  of  Greek  culture,  medical  art  took  an 
active  move  forward.  IIij)pocrates,  4<50-377  n.  c,  the  honored 
father  of  medicine  and  the  compiler  of  all  the  knowledge  which  ex- 
isted up  to  his  time,  was  quite  well  acquainted  with  the  coarser 
anatomy  of  some  of  the  lower  animals,  and  we  find  several  notices 
in  his  writings  which  warrant  us  in  assuming  that  he  was  not  unac- 
quainted with  some  of  their  diseases.     In  speaking  of  hydrothorax, 


220  THE   HISTORY   OF  VETERIx\ARY   MEDICINE. 

or  water  in  the  chest,  lie  says,  "  It  is  a  disease  which  is  also  fre- 
quently met  with  among  oxen,  sheep,  and  swine."  *  He  had  proba- 
bly met  with  it  in  these  animals  much  more  frequently  than  others, 
because  of  their  frequent  use  in  the  sacrifices  at  the  altars  of  the 
gods  at  the  Hellenic  temples.  In  another  place  he  says :  "  In 
cattle,  the  thighs  are  apt  to  become  dislocated  at  the  hip-joint, 
when  they  are  particularly  lean,  which  occurs  at  the  end  of  winter, 
at  which  time  they  are  particularly  subject  to  dislocations.  Homer 
has  well  remarked  that  of  all  beasts  oxen  suffer  the  most  at  that 
season,  and  especially  those  employed  at  the  plow.  In  them,  there- 
fore, dislocations  happen  most  frequently."  f  The  influence  which 
Hippocrates  exerted  upon  medical  science  for  a  thousand  years 
after  his  death  is  scarcely  appreciated  by  the  public,  and  by  far  not 
sufficiently  esteemed  by  his  successors  of  the  present  day,  many 
of  whom  have  not  read  his  works,  notwithstanding  their  accessibil- 
ity to  English  readers,  by  the  above-mentioned  excellent  and  critical 
edition,  for  which  we  are  indebted  to  the  Sydenham  Society  for 
publication.  The  young  practitioner  of  to-day  seems  to  be  carried 
away  by  the  desire  for  new  things,  and  all  sorts  of  iiew  remedies 
are  eagerly  sought  after  and  experimented  with,  much  to  the  neg- 
lect of  the  study  of  the  fathers  of  medicine.  The  present  genera- 
tion is  emphatically  one  of  research,  but  it  is  a  great  and  harm- 
ful error  to  think  that  the  microscope  and  crucible  can  reveal  all 
that  is  to  be  known  of  disease.  The  works  of  the  fathers  of 
medicine  often  excelled  those  of  the  present  day  in  clinical  ob- 
servation, in  the  exact  description  of  the  intra-vital  phenomena  of 
disease,  and  in  detailing  the  results  of  experiences  gained  at  the 
sick-bed  from  the  use  of  medicines.  At  present  a  healthy  re- 
action is  beginning  in  this  direction,  and  the  microscope  furor  is 
being  toned  down  within  the  limits  of  practical  possibility,  notwith- 
standing a  Kew  York  enthusiast  purposes  to  tell  us  whether  two 
given  persons  are  compatible  for  marriage,  so  far  as  the  production 
of  healthy  offspring  is  concerned,  by  the  microscopic  appearance  of 
the  granulations  in  the  protoplasma  of  the  white  or  colorless  blood- 
corpuscles.  That  such  an  assertion  is  but  the  utterance  of  a  vision- 
ary and  untrustworthy  observer  scarcely  needs  to  be  mentioned. 

Hippocrates,:}:  also  called  the  great,  is  said  to  have  come  from  a 
family  of  doctors,  descending  from  yEsculapius  and  Ilerucles. 
Little  is  known  of  his  life,  many  relations  concerning  the  same  being 
mixed  up  with  myths  and  impossible  extravagances.     He  was,  how- 

*  Haeser,  he.  cit.,  p.  173.  f  "Works,  Sydenham  edition,  vol.  ii,  p.  575. 

J  Wunderlich,  "  History  of  Medicine." 


THE    niSTORV    OF   VETERINARY    MEDICINE.  221 

ever,  greatly  hunoret-l,  and  both  j)niotlcL'(l  and  taugLt  medicine 
among  his  countrymen,  lie  wa.s  the  author  of  many  books,  but 
few  of  those  which  have  come  down  to  us  are  looked  upon  as 
genuine ;  many  others  attributed  to  him  c-untain  much  of  his  teach- 
ing, however.  It  is  a  mistake  to  designate  him  as  the  founder  of  a 
new  system  of  medicine  :  he  was  simply  a  harvester  in  the  lields  of 
medicine,  but  also  a  keen  observer  of  the  phenomena  of  disease.  He 
himself  says  that  ''  he  who  scorns  or  throws  away  the  past,  and  seeks 
to  make  a  new  way  and  new  theories,  or  thinks  that  he  has  found 
such,  is  either  a  deceiver  or  is  himself  deceived  " — words  which 
should  not  be  without  due  appreciation  by  the  JSsculapians  of  the 
present  day  and  generation.  The  followere  are  many,  the  discover- 
ers of  new  truths  but  isolated  phenomena  in  the  march  of  human 
progress. 

He  was  a  grand  observer  of  nature.  lie  made  no  new  system, 
but  was  bitterly  op]>osed  to  hypotheses.  He  looked  uj)on  the  living 
organism  in  the  Epidoclesian  sense,  as  composed  of  four  cardinal  ele- 
ments, which  he  named  blood,  mucus,  black  gall,  and  yellow  gall. 
His  pathology  was  simple  in  the  extreme.  When  these  cardinal 
elements  bore  a  proper  relation  to  eacJi  other  in  the  living  organism, 
a  crasis  or  normality  existed  ;  any  disturbance  of  this  normal  condi- 
tion, any  preponderance  of  one  of  these  elements,  either  as  a  whole 
or  locally,  produced  abnormality,  dyscrasis.  He  laid  but  little  value 
upon  theoretic  discussions :  "  When  any  one  can  give  a  better  ex- 
planation, it  suits  me  equally  well ;  such  ability  is  but  the  result  of  a 
glib  tongue."  His  anatomical  knowledge  was  quite  limited,  and  he 
seems  never  to  have  made  studies  upon  the  human  body.  He  laid 
great  stress  upon  the  value  of  knowledge  with  regard  to  all  the  ex- 
ternal phenomena  presented  by  the  diseased  organism.  The  condi- 
tions, in  disease,  of  many  internal  organs,  did  not,  however,  escape 
his  attention — such  as  the  swelling  of  the  spleen,  and  its  subsequent 
retraction,  in  various  forms  of  infectious  disease.  "  The  practitioner 
should  be  able  to  recognize  the  conditions  presented  to  him,  without 
the  necessity  of  referring  to  the  relations  of  the  patient ;  ...  if 
perspiration  occurs  in  a  fevered  patient,  without  remission  of  the 
fever,  the  disease  will  be  lengthened ;  the  fever  increases  when 
the  teeth  have  a  viscid  coating;  ...  a  disea.'^  in  which  sleep  has  a 
deleterious  influence  is  deadly  ;  when  the  patient  is,  however,  im- 
proved by  sleep,  it  is  to  bo  looked  upon  as  a  favorable  symptom  ;  .  .  . 
sleep  and  sleeplessness,  when  present  to  an  abnormal  degree,  are 
evil  symptoms ;  .  .  .  when  a  convalescent  person  has  a  good  appe- 
tite, but  does  not  improve  thereby,  it  is  a  bad  symptom ;  ...  he 


222  THE   HISTORY   OF   VETERINARY   MEDICINE. 

who  would  correctly  prognosticate  as  to  who  will  die  or  who  will 
recover,  whether  the  disease  will  be  of  long  or  short  duration,  must 
know  well  all  the  phenomena,  and  be  well  versed  as  to  their  re- 
spective value." 

His  manner  of  treatment  was  well  considered,  and  he  generally 
avoided  heroic  means.  He  placed  great  stress  upon  the  value  of 
dietetics,  which  should  be  adapted  to  the  individuality  of  the  pa- 
tient, his  constitution  and  habits.  He  was,  according  to  his  idea  of 
the  cardinal  elements,  much  addicted  to  the  employment  of  local 
means,  by  which  the  supposed  centralization  of  a  given  element  was 
to  be  equalized  or  the  surplus  removed ;  therefore,  we  iind  in  his 
writings  many  directions  for  local  bleeding  and  applications.  He 
invented  quite  a  number  of  surgical  instruments;  performed  tre- 
panning of  the  cranium,  set  bones,  and  reduced  luxations.  He 
highly  prized  cauterization,  and  his  last  aphorism  reads :  "  What 
medicine  will  not  cure,  the  iron  will ;  what  the  iron  will  not  cure, 
fire  will ;  what  fire  can  not  cure,  must  be  considered  as  incurable." 

But,  above  all  Greek  writers  of  antiquity  celebrated  in  the  field 
of  medicine,  none  equaled,  in  a  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of  ani- 
mals, that  mighty  intellect  which  has  been  the  wonder  of  humanity 
for  generations,  and  which  had  not  its  equal  in  the  arena  of  natural 
science  until  long  after  the  middle  ages — Aristotle. 

"  Aristotle  was  born  at  Stagyra  in  Macedonia,  in  the  year  384, 
and  died  326  b.  c.  He  was  undoubtedly  the  greatest  thinker  of  his 
time,  and  united  in  himself  all  the  knowledge  which  then  existed. 
His  father,  Nichomachus,  was  body-surgeon  to  Amyntas  III,  of 
Macedon,  the  father  of  Philip.  At  seventeen  years  of  age,  Aris- 
totle went  to  Athens  to  study  under  the  immortal  Plato,  who  recog- 
nized his  great  genius,  and  called  him  the  brightest  spirit  of  his 
school.  Aristotle  soon  separated  himself  from  his  teacher,  and  be- 
gan to  oppose  the  doctrines  which  he  taught ;  he  went  to  Mace- 
don, and  became  the  tutor  of  Alexander  the  Great.  "When  the 
latter  went  upon  his  conquests  into  Asia,  Aristotle  returned  to 
Athens,  where  he  appeared  in  the  character  of  teacher,  Alexander 
supporting  him,  and  for  his  studies  giving  him  the  immense  advan- 
tages offered  by  the  collections  of  curiosities  made  in  his  foreign 
conquests.  The  results  of  his  investigations  are  collected  in  his 
writings  and  speak  for  themselves. .  On  Alexander's  death  the  ene- 
mies of  Aristotle  became  powerful  enough  to  cause  his  banishment 
from  Athens ;  he  was  declared  a  heretic,  a  disbeliever  in  the  gods, 
and  so  deadly  was  the  pursuit  of  his  enemies  that  he  finally  killed 
himself  in  his  sixty-third  year.     His  body  was  brought  to  the  place 


TEE   HISTORY   OF   VETERINARY    MEDICINE.  223 

of  his  nativity,  his  eountryinen  erecting  a  nionuuient  to  liis  memory. 
Aristotle  may  be  justly  styled  the  founder  of  zoiitomy,  the  anatomy 
of  animals.  His  writings,  subsequent  to  his  death,  suffered  a  rather 
chanireable  destiny:  thev  fell  at  tirst  into  the  hands  of  his  heirs; 
then  they  were  buried  and  barely  escaped  destruction  from  decay 
and  worms ;  afterward  they  were  conveyed  to  Athens,  and  finally  to 
Rome  by  the  Romans  on  the  capture  of  Athens,  and  from  there 
they  have  been  dispersed  over  the  world,  but  not  without  many 
falsifications  and  changes."  * 

His  anatomical  descriptions,^  so  far  as  they  had  reference  to 
man,  were  limited  to  topographical  descriptions  of  the  external 
parts ;  the  formation  of  the  internal  was,  as  he  himself  says,  little 
known,  but  they  were  described  according  to  analogy,  from  the  ex- 
aminations of  similar  organs  in  the  lower  animals.  lie  describes 
the  brain  and  its  membranous  surroundings,  as  well  as  its  ventri- 
cles, cavities ;  also  the  optic  nerves  in  their  passage  from  the  brain 
to  the  eye ;  on  the  other  hand,  he  denied  any  connection  between 
the  brain  and  the  ear  ;  he  describes  also  the  larynx,  uvula,  epiglot- 
tis, the  trachea  and  its  bifurcations  in  the  lungs,  also  the  Eustachian 
tubes,  but  had  an  incorrect  idea  with  reference  to  the  connection 
between  the  heart  and  lungs;  he  described  the  oesophagus,  and 
its  passage  into  the  stomach,  as  well  as  the  extension  of  the  latter 
to  the  intestines ;  also  the  epiploon  and  mesenterium,  Kotwith- 
standing  much  study,  it  was  impossible  for  hira  to  come  to  any  defi- 
nite conclusions  with  reference  to  the  vascular  system ;  he  looked 
upon  the  heart  as  the  center  of  the  vessels,  but  described  only  three 
cavities  in  that  organ,  missing  the  septum  between  the  auricles; 
he  notices  the  aorta  and  vena  cava,  as  well  as  the  main  arteries 
and  veins  of  the  head  and  neck ;  also  the  diaphragm,  liver,  gall- 
bladder, kidneys,  and  their  pelvis,  the  ureters  and  veins  of  the  kid- 
neys, tlie  urinary  bladder  and  urethra,  the  testicles  and  their  vessels, 
as  well  as  the  same  organs  in  the  female,  and  the  uterus.  It  is 
doubtful,  however,  if  he  knew  of  the  relation  of  the  secretion  of 
the  kidneys  to  the  l)laddor,  or  of  the  organ  at  present  considered  as 
the  rudimentary  male  uterus. 

Aristotle  had  very  imperfect  ideas  of  the  circulation  :  the  blood 
was  generated  in  the  heart  and  from  there  dispersed  over  the  organ- 
ism ;  it  sprang,  coagulated,  out  of  the  vessels,  and  was  of  varialjle 
color.  The  respiration  served  as  a  cooler  to  the  organism — its  or- 
gans are  the  lungs  and  gills ;  his  incorrect  idea  of  the  connection 

*  Schracder-IIering,  "  Bibliopraph.  Lexicon  f.  TliicrarTte,"  p.  16. 
f  Aubcrt  and  Wimmer,  "Aristotle's  Thierkundc,"  Lcipsic,  1868.  , 


224  THE  HISTORY   OF  VETERINARY  MEDICINE. 

between  the  lungs  and  heart  gave  him  the  conception  that  the  air 
came  into  the  heart ;  he  compared  the  lungs  to  an  air-sac,  and  does 
not  seem  to  have  had  any  conception  of  the  changes  which  take 
place  in  the  blood  by  their  means.  His  views  with  reference  to 
digestion,  and  the  changes  which  the  elements  of  the  organism  un- 
dergo, were  very  crude  indeed.  His  description  of  the  senses,  see- 
ing, hearing,  smell,  and  taste,  is  surprisingly  clear  and  explicit. 
He  looked  upon  the  muscles  as  the  organs  of  sensitiveness,  and  not 
of  movement ;  the  sinews  as  motor  organs,  and  the  heart  as  the  cen- 
ter of  movement.  He  made  an  astonishing  number  of  clever  obser- 
vations with  regard  to  the  generation  and  development  of  animals, 
and  studied  the  same  in  the  hen's  e^g ;  the  formation  of  the  heart, 
brain,  and  eye,  allantois,  and  chorion  ;  the  duration  of  gestation  in 
many  different  species.  His  observations  with  reference  to  the 
instincts  of  animals  are  often  surprisingly  correct,  as  well  as  with 
regard  to  the  variations  in  their  habits  of  life.  Aristotle  also  de- 
scribed quite  a  number  of  diseases  among  animals,  and,  as  the  sub- 
ject is  not  without  instructive  interest,  I  take  the  liberty  of  giving 
a  very  free  translation  of  them  here.* 

"  As  to  the  diseases  of  quadrupeds,  swine  have  three  different 
diseases.  One  is  known  as  '  bronchos,'  and  consists  in  an  inflam- 
mation of  the  air-tubes  and  the  masticating  organs ;  it,  however, 
frequently  complicates  other  parts  of  the  porcine  organism ;  some- 
times the  feet  become  diseased,  and  at  others  the  ears.  The  dis- 
ease develops  rapidly,  the  swine  soon  losing  their  appetite.  The 
herdsmen  know  of  no  other  treatment  than  to  cut  out  the  diseased 
part  at  once.  Aside  from  this,  two  other  diseases  occur  in  swine, 
both  being  known  by  the  name  of  '  kraura.'  In  one  of  them  we 
may  perceive  pain  and  depression  of  the  head,  and  in  the  other 
diarrhoea  is  the  most  frequent  phenomenon.  This  last  is  reputed 
to  be  incurable ;  the  first  is,  however,  cured  by  rubbing  the  snout 
with  wine,  as  well  as  washing  the  interior  of  the  same  with  that 
material.  In  this  disease,  also,  but  few  recover,  as  it  generally 
ends  fatally  in  from  three  to  four  days.  Swine  suffer  most  from 
'  bronchos '  when  the  summer  is  very  fruitful  and  the  swine  very 
fat.  Mulberries  and  plenty  of  warm  baths  are  said  to  have  a 
beneficial  effect ;  scarification  of  the  tongue  is  said  also  to  be  re- 
sorted to.  The  swine  are  measly  when  the  flesh  of  the  limbs, 
neck,  and  shoulders  is  soft;  in  these  places  the  measles  must  be 
sought  for.  The  flesh  has  a  sweet  taste  when  it  harbors  measles, 
at  the  same  time  it  is  soft  and  watery.     One  can  easily  tell  when 

*  A.  and  W.,  chapters  xx,  xxii,  p.  181. 


THE   niSTORY   OF   VETEIUNAKY    MEDICINE.  225 

the  swine  have  measles,  fur  tliey  are  to  be  fouiul  under  the  tongue. 
Measly  swine  can  not  keep  their  hind-feet  quiet ;  they  lose  the 
measles  after  having  fed  upon  '  tiplia,'  which  also  helps  their  con- 
dition. The  best  food  to  nourish  swine  is  peas  and  tigs,  but  one 
must  not  give  them  one  kind  of  food,  as  mixed  diet  is  best  for 
them.  It  is  &i\\d  that  acorns  are  greedily  devoured  by  swine,  but 
that  they  make  them  have  soft  and  watery  flesh.  AVhen  in  a 
pregnant  condition  too  many  acorns  cause  them  to  abort,  as  they 
also  do  sheep.  So  far  as  we  know,  swine  are  the  only  animals 
that  harbor  measles. 

'•  Dogs  also  suffer  from  three  diseases,  known  as  '  rabies,'  '  ky- 
nanche,'  and  '  podagra.'  Rabies  puts  them  into  fits  of  rage,  during 
which  they  bite  furiously,  and  all  animals  bitten  by  them  when  in 
this  condition  also  become  mad,  loith  the  exception  of  man.  This 
disease  kills  the  dogs,  as  well  as  all  animals  bitten  by  them,  with  the 
exception  of  man.  '  Kynanche '  is  also  deadly  to  dogs,  and  from 
'  podagra '  but  few  recover.  Camels  are  also  subject  to  rabies.  Of 
all  other  animals,  the  elephant  alone  is  exempted  from  this  disease, 
but  it  is  subject  to  tympanitis." 

**  Cattle  living  in  herds  are  subject  to  two  diseases,  known  as 
'  podagra '  and  '  krauros.'  In  the  firet,  the  feet  become  swollen, 
but  they  do  not  die  from  it,  nor  do  they  lose  their  hoofs ;  they  be- 
come better  when  one  covers  their  horns  with  hot  pitch.  In  '  krau- 
ros,' their  breath  is  hot  and  respiration  accelerated  ;  this  is  called 
fever  in  men,  but  '  krauros '  in  cattle.  The  signs  of  this  disease  are 
drooping  ears  and  loss  of  appetite  ;  they  die  rapidly,  and  the  lungs 
are  gangrenous  upon  examination. 

'*  Horses  which  live  \\\>o\\  pastures  are  subject  to  no  other  disease 
than  '  podagra.'  AVhen  afllicted  with  this  disease  they  sometimes 
lose  their  hoofs  ;  but,  when  this  is  the  case,  new  ones  soon  develop, 
for,  as  the  new  hoof  grows  down,  the  old  one  is  shed.  Among  the 
signs  of  this  disease  is  swelling  of  the  right  testicle,  or  a  corrugated 
condition  of  the  skin  between  the  nostrils.  They  are  also  subject 
to  a  disease  which  is  called  '  eilos,'  which  is  characterized  by  the 
animals  placing  the  four  feet  together  under  the  body.  AVhcn 
horses  go  for  some  days  without  eating,  and  then  become  crazy,  one 
has  to  resort  to  bleeding  and  castration.  They  arc  also  subject  to 
'  tetanus,'  a  disease  by  which  all  the  vessels,  as  well  as  the  head  and 
neck,  become  stiffened,  and  the  animals  move  stiff-legged.  They 
soon  become  purulent.  Another  disease  to  which  they  are  subject 
is  called  '  krithian,'  indicated  by  a  soft  palate  and  hot  breath.  These 
diseases  are  incurable,  when  they  do  not  cease  of  themselves,  which 

15 


226  THE   HISTORY   OF  VETERINARY   MEDICINE. 

is  also  the  case  in  tlie  disease  called  '  nympliian,'  in  which  the  horse 
becomes  stiS  when  one  blows  up  its  nose,  or  depresses  the  head ; 
when  any  one  tries  to  ride  them  they  go  in  circles  until  stopped. 
They  always  depress  the  head  when  rabid.  Other  signs  of  the  same 
are  that  they  depress  the  ears  upon  the  mane,  and  again  elevate 
them  ;  that  they  become  weak  and  snort  much.  Conditions  con- 
nected with  pain  of  the  heart  are  also  incurable  :  in  this  the  animals 
have  tucked-up  flanks,  or  the  bladder  becomes  displaced,  which  is 
easily  recognized  from  the  inability  of  the  horse  to  micturate,  and 
that  they  draw  their  legs  up  and  stamp  with  their  feet.  According 
to  those  who  should  know,  horses  and  sheep  suffer  from  all  the  dis- 
eases common  to  man.  A  poison  known  as  '  sandarac '  kills  not 
only  the  horse  but  all  draught-animals.  It  is  given  in  water.  A 
pregnant  horse  aborts  when  it  smells  the  smoke  from  a  blown-out 
candle ;  the  same  effect  is  also  occasionally  observed  in  women 
when  in  the  same  condition.  Horses  love  meadows  and  swamps. 
They  drink  gladly  of  dirty  water,  and  when  the  water  is  clear  they 
stir  up  the  bottom  with  their  feet,  and  then  bathe  in  it,  for  these 
animals  generally  bathe  gladly  and  love  water.  Cattle,  on  the  con- 
trary, do  not  drink  freely  of  water  which  is  unclean  and  warm. 

"  The  ass  suffers  especially  from  one  disease,  which  is  known  as 
'  melis.'  It  at  first  attacks  the  head,  a  viscid,  yellow  slime  running 
from  the  nostrils ;  when  the  disease  extends  to  the  lungs  it  is  deadly, 
but  when  limited  to  the  head  it  is  not  so.  Of  all  animals  of  its 
kind,  the  ass  can  bear  cold  the  least,  and  thrives,  therefore,  in  warm 
climates. 

"  The  elephant  is  subject  to  tympanitis,  and  when  thus  afflicted 
can  neither  micturate  nor  pass  faeces.  When  it  eats  earth  (?)  at  in- 
tervals, it  becomes  weak ;  but  when  it  eats  it  constantly,  it  does  not 
seem  to  harm  it.  Sometimes  it  swallows  stones.  It  also  occasion- 
ally suffers  from  diarrhcBa,  and  is  healed  by  giving  it  warm  water, 
and  hay  which  has  been  dipped  in  honey.  When  suffering  from 
want  of  sleep  they  become  weak,  but  strength  returns  when  the 
shoulders  are  rubbed  with  warm  water,  salt,  and  oil.  When  troubled 
with  pains  in  the  shoulder,  they  can  be  helped  by  placing  roasted 
pork  iipon  the  afflicted  part.  Some  elephants  will  drink  oil,  others 
not.  When  a  fragment  of  iron  penetrates  their  body,  it  is  said  that 
it  can  be  driven  out  by  giving  them  oil,  but  those  who  will  not  drink 
it  willingly  must  be  given  the  oil  mixed  with  roots." 

The  fame  of  the  noted  Greek  general,  Xenophon  (349-259  b.  c), 
is  not  alone  limited  to  the  remarkable  retreat  of  the  brave  ten  thou- 
satid,  for  his  writings  upon  the  horse  and  horsemanship  have  given 


THE   niSTORY   OF    VETERINARY    MEDICINE.  227 

Ijiin  a  no  less  lastiii<ij  reputation.  Fleming  *  says  of  liini :  "This 
celebrated  cavalrv-offieer  appears  to  have  carefully  studied  the  char- 
acter of  the  horse,  and  all  the  precepts  which  he  gives  in  his  treatise 
on  horsemanship  are  dictated  by  an  amount  of  wisdom  and  hu- 
manity which  has  not,  perhaps,  been  excelled  since  his  day.  The 
safety  and  comfort  of  that  animal  and  its  rider  were  ever  before 
him  ;  his  teachings  were  principally  directed  to  make  the  horse  pe- 
culiarly atla])ted  to  service  in  war.  lie  displays  great  judgment 
when  specifying  the  proper  form  and  disposition  of  the  parts  which 
collectively  make  up  the  nearest  approach  to  a  perfect  horse,  and 
markedly  shows  to  what  a  high  degree,  in  that  distant  age,  tliis  kind 
of  knowledge  was  cultivated  ;  indeed,  from  his  writings  we  are  led  to 
infer  that  in  his  time,  and  perhaps  long  before,  there  were  accom- 
})lislied  hoi-sc-breakers  and  public  riding-masters,  as  well  as  men  who 
were  excellent  judges  of  the  qualities  of  the  horse.  In  advising  as 
to  the  good  '  points '  to  be  sought  for  in  a  hoi'se,  he  employs  the 
clearest  terms  to  express  his  meaning.  '  A  person,'  he  says,  '  may 
form  his  opinion  of  the  feet  by  first  examining  the  hoofs;  for  t/iick 
or  strong  hoofs  are  much  more  conducive  to  firmness  than  thin  ones; 
and  it  must  not  escape  his  notice  whether  the  hoofs  arc  high  or  low, 
as  well  before  as  behind  ;  for,  in  high  hoofs,  what  is  called  the  frog 
is  high  above  the  ground,  and  low  ones  tread  equally  on  the  strong- 
est and  weakest  parts  of  the  hoof,  like  in-kneed  men,  or  like  crip- 
ples among  men,  who  limp  on  parts  which  were  never  intended  by 
nature  to  support  them.'  lie  says,  further:  'iVs  attention  must 
be  paid  to  the  horse's  food  and  exercise,  that  his  body  may  be  vig- 
orous, so  must  care  be  taken  of  his  feet.  Damp  and  smooth  stable- 
floors  injure  even  naturally  good  hoofs,  and  to  prevent  them  from 
being  damp  they  ought  to  be  sloping ;  to  prevent  them  from  being 
eniooth  they  should  have  irregular-shaped  stones  inserted  in  the 
ground,  close  to  one  another,  similar  to  a  horse's  hoof  in  size  ;  for 
such  floors  give  firmness  to  the  feet  of  horses  that  stand  upon  them. 
.  .  .  The  ground  outside  the  stable  may  be  put  into  excellent  con- 
dition, and  serve  to  strengthen  the  horse's  feet,  if  a  person  throws 
down  in  it  four  or  five  measures  of  round  stones,  each  large  enough 
to  fill  the  two  hands,  and  each  about  a  ])ound  (?)  in  weight ;  they 
should  l)e  surrounded  with  an  iron  rim,  so  that  they  may  not  be 
scattered  ;  for,  as  the  horse  stands  upon  them,  he  will  be  in  much 
the  same  condition  as  if  he  were  to  travel  part  of  every  day  upon  a 
stony  road.  The  feet  of  horses  that  have  been  hardened  by  ex- 
ercise will  be  superior  on  rough  ground  to  those  which  are  not 
♦  "Iloreeshoes  and  Horseshoeing,"  p.  21. 


228  THE   HISTORY   OF  VETERINARY   MEDICINE. 

habituated  to  it ;  as  persons  that  are  sound  in  their  limbs,  to  those 
who  are  lame.' " 

Among  later  Greek  writers  upon  the  domestic  animals,  we  find 
the  name  of  Absyrtus,  and  a  veterinary,  Hippocrates,  who  lived 
about  the  fourth  century.  The  former,  born  at  Brusa,  in  Bithynia, 
is  by  far  the  most  important  writer  of  all  the  Greeks  upon  the  dis- 
eases of  domestic  animals.  It  appears  that  he  belonged  to  a  family 
that  was  celebrated  for  its  veterinarians ;  at  least,  his  grandfather, 
Demitrns,  also  followed  the  calling.  He  was  a  good  observer  of  the 
outward  phenomena  of  disease,  although  not  a  scientific  student  of 
nature ;  he  does  not  seem  to  have  associated  much  with  the  medi- 
cal men  of  his  time,  and  thus  may  have  served  to  give  the  profession 
a  certain  degree  of  individuality  which  it  had  not  previously  pos- 
sessed. He  especially  mentions  that  the  gall-bladder  is  not  present 
in  the  horse. 

Hippocrates's  writings  were  of  but  little  importance,  but  were 
more  or  less  perfectly  collected  in  the  Constantinian  "  Hippiatrica," 
which  we  shall  find  occasion  to  consider  later  on.  He  belonged  to 
that  great  class  of  veterinarians  who  willingly  acknowledged  the 
superiority  of  Absyrtns,  and  learned  from  him.  Heusinger  ex- 
presses astonishment  that,  althougli  Hij^pocrates  lived  at  the  time 
of  Absyrtus,  none  of  the  subsequent  Greek  and  Roman  veterinarians 
seem  to  make  any  mention  of  him. 

About  this  time  also  flourished  the  noted  medical  authors  Cel- 
sus  and  Galen.  Celsus  wrote  an  encyclopaedia  containing  works 
upon  medicine,  agriculture,  and  veterinary  medicine  ;  the  part  treat- 
ing upon  the  last  two  subjects  has  been,  unfortunately,  lost  to  jdos- 
terity.  Of  all  Roman  doctors,  however,  none  has  acquired  the 
world-wide  celebrity  and  authority  which  have  been  given  to  Clau- 
dius Galenus,  131-200  a.  d.*  He  received  a  most  careful  educa- 
tion, studying  philosophy  and  medicine  at  Pergamos,  his  native 
city,  also  at  Smyrna,  Corinth,  and  Alexandria;  he  was  especially 
diligent  in  the  study  of  anatomy.  At  twenty-eight  years  of  age  he 
was  appointed  medical  attendant  to  the  gladiators  at  Pergamos,  and 
remained  there  until  164  a.  d.  He  then  removed  to  Rome  ;  but 
practice  seems  to  have  been  a  secondary  consideration  with  him, 
and  he  appears  to  have  been  but  poorly  appreciated  by  his  Roman 
colleagues.  We  find  him,  however,  to  have  been  on  terras  of  inti- 
macy with  the  philosophers,  and  prominent  members  of  the  aris- 
tocracy ;  he  held  public  lectures  upon  physiology,  which  for  a  time 
enjoyed  great  poj)ularity,  but  were  subsequently  given  up  on  account 

*  Wunderlich,  "  Geschichte  d.  Medicin,"  p.  33. 


TUE   UISTOUY    OF   VETERINARY   MEDICINE.  229 

of  the  enmity  of  the  medical  profession.  He  soon  after  left  Home, 
traveliiif?  over  Italy,  and  returned  to  lVrii:'ainos  in  lGi>  a.  d.,  but  was 
again  called  to  Ivonie  by  the  enn)erors  IMarcus  Aurelius  and  Lucius 
Yenis,  where  ho  remained  until  his  death,  giving  public  lectures, 
and  busied  with  his  studies  and  writings.  lie  was  the  most  exten- 
sive medical  author  that  has  ever  lived,  and  appears  to  have  begun 
his  authorship  even  as  a  boy.  It  has  been  estimated  that  he  wrote 
some  four  hundred  books,  some  of  them  being  quite  large.  He 
was,  indeed,  a  polyhistorian,  and  a  man  of  astonishing  learning; 
many  of  the  views  of  medical  authors  antecedent  to  his  time  are 
only  known  to  ns  through  his  writings.  lie  possessed  great  analyti- 
cal and  critical  ability  ;  he  had  seen  much  himself,  and  investigated 
much,  and  possessed  a  highly  systematic  mind,  clearing  medicine, 
as  it  then  existed,  from  nuich  of  the  superstition  and  nonsense  with 
which  it  was  burdened.  His  anatomical  knowledge  was  derived  in 
part  from  the  writings  of  llerophilus  and  Erisistratus,  and  in  part 
from  his  own  dissections,  which  were  made  largely  npon  apes.  It 
had  not  been  possible  for  a  long  time  to  make  studies  of  anatomy 
upon  the  human  form  divine,  and  this  age,  which  did  not  pause  to 
sacritice  thousands  of  human  beings  at  brutal  gladiatorial  combats, 
still  could  not  oUer  one  for  the  good  of  humanity  and  the  advance- 
ment of  knowledge.  Only  once,  during  the  German  war  of  Marcus 
Aurelius,  was  it  allowed  the  doctoi-s  to  dissect  a  human  body,  but 
they  did  not  get  beyond  the  situation  of  the  intestines,  ^t'ever- 
theless,  the  writings  of  this  great  doctor  remained  for  a  thousand 
yeare  the  source  from  which  a  knowledge  of  human  anatomy  was 
drawn,  and  it  was  only  by  earnest  endeavors,  supported  by  actual 
inspection,  that  his  great  authority  was  finally  shaken.  Galen  is 
accredited  with  saying  that  "  the  education  of  a  doctor  was  incom- 
plete without  a  knowledge  of  the  processes  of  disease  among  the 
lower  animals." 

The  writings  of  the  celebrated  Roman  veterinary  authors,  Cato, 
Varo,  Columella,  and  Vegetius,  which  are  mostly  cumpilations  from 
earlier  writers,  may  be  found  collected  in  "  De  Rei  Rusticse,"  a  good 
cditidU  of  which  was  given  out  by  Gesner  in  1735:  cojiies  of  this 
work  may  l>e  found  in  some  of  our  medical  and  public  libraries. 
These  writings  contain  descriptions  of  some  diseases,  much  of  which 
is  altsurd  and  ndiculous,  in  the  light  of  the  ])resent  day. 

*'  Marcus  Fortius  Cato,*  the  most  ancient  of  this  quartet,  was 
bom  at  Tusculum,  or  Tivoli,  234,  and  died  149  b.  c.  He  was  of  a 
plebeian  family,  ami  served  as  a  soldier  under  Fabius  Maximus,  but 
*  Schracdcr-llering,  loc.  cU.,  p.  76. 


230  THE  HISTORY   OF  VETERINARY   MEDICINE. 

by  his  energy  of  character  elevated  himself  to  positions  of  the  high- 
est honor.  He  became  a  clever  general,  jurist,  and  orator.  On  ac- 
count of  his  steadfast  morals,  and  constant  enmity  to  human  frailties, 
he  acquired  the  surname  of  'the  Censor.'  He  was  an  enthusiastic 
opponent  of  Greek  doctrines  and  art,  and  has  the  honor  of  being  the 
first  Koman  who  wi'ote  upon  agriculture :  in  these  writings  we  ob- 
serve a  crude  development  of  veterinary  medicine.  His  writings 
have  been  frequently  printed  and  translated  into  several  European 
languages." 

"Lucius  Junius  Columella*  was  born  at  Cadiz,  Spain,  in  the 
reign  of  the  Roman  emperor  Clandius,  about  42  a.  d.  He  had  fre- 
quent recourse  to  the  writings  of  Celsus,  and  did  much  for  the 
development  of  veterinary  medicine.  His  writings  upon  the  dis- 
eases of  the  horse  are  not  inconsiderable,  but  his  descriptions  of 
those  of  cattle  are  by  far  the  best  which  we  have  received  from 
antiquity." 

"  Publius  Renatus  Yegetii  f  (fourth  century  a.  d.)  is  noted  as 
the  most  erudite  among  the  early  veterinary  authors.  He  appears 
to  have  possessed  no  inconsiderable  degree  of  knowledge  with  refer- 
ence to  the  diseases  of  the  horse  and  their  treatment,  as  well  as  a 
scholastic  acquaintance  with  the  writings  of  his  Greek  and  Roman 
predecessors,  and  some  of  human  medicine,  and  to  have  held  affec- 
tionately to  its  antiquated  theories  and  methods  of  practice.  I  have 
heretofore  said  that  '  veterinary  medicine  has  heen  but  a  parasite 
clinging  to  human  medicine  for  support.'  His  writings  bear  the 
characteristics  peculiar  to  his  time,  but  are  distinguished  from  those 
of  many  of  his  contemporaries  by  being  written  in  more  scholastic 
Latin.  He  used  the  writings  of  Absyrtus,  but  complains  of  the 
illiterate  style  in  which  they  were  written.  As  Vegetius  often 
speaks  of  the  Huns  and  their  horses,  and  as  these  people  spread 
over  the  Yolga  in  374  a.  d.,  it  is  evident  that  he  must  have  lived  in 
the  fourth  or  early  in  the  fifth  century,  at  a  time  when  the  Latins 
also  understood  Greek.  He  describes  the  diseases  according  to  the 
parts  afflicted,  and  varies  but  little  from  his  Greek  predecessors.  It 
is  to  his  credit  that  he  was  the  first  veterinary  author  who  endeav- 
ored to  bring  some  order  out  of  the  chaos  which  had  until  then  ex- 
isted, and  endeavored  to  formulate  some  general  principles  for  the 
diagnosis  and  treatment  of  animal  diseases.  His  first  two  books 
treat  upon  the  diseases  of  the  horse,  the  third  upon  those  of  cattle, 
the  fourth  gives  a  general  description  of  the  bovine  and  equine 
form,  and  the  composition  of  many  medicines  ;  among  the  latter  are 
*  Schraeder-Hering,  loc,  eit.,  p.  88.  f  Ibid.,  p.  440. 


THE   HISTORY    OF   VKTERINARY   MEDICINE.  231 

many  which  are  nio-st  hulicrous.  AVhik'  thu  therapeutic  knowledi^e 
displayed  hy  ^'e^etius  is  frequently  good,  his  knowledge  of  anatomy 
was  most  insignitieant,  especially  of  that  which  was  then  known  in 
human  medicine." 

It  is  in  the  writings  of  these  authors  that  we  iind  the  words 
"veterinaria"  and  "  veterinarius"  first  appearing,  indicating  the 
Latin  oritrin  of  our  words  ''veterinary"  and  "'  veterinarian."  The 
art  was  also  called  '*  mulo-medicine,"  and  Vcgetius  styles  himself 
"Vegetii  Renatii  sive  Mulo-medicinae."  It  is  at  or  about  this 
period  that  we  first  find  intimations  of  horseshoeing  among  the 
Romans,  a  practice  they  seem  to  have  borrowed  from  the  Germans 
and  Gauls.* 

Veterinarii  are  also  mentioned  as  attached  to  the  Roman  cavah-y, 
and  attending  to  the  health  of  the  animals  used  at  the  circus  at 
Rome. 

During  this  period  numerous  pests  carried  devastation  and  mis- 
ery among  the  Romans  and  their  tributary  tribes;  the  domestic 
animals  likewise  suffered  from  similar  scourges.  No  writer  of  the 
period  has  given  to  posterity  so  classical  a  description  of  these  devas- 
tations among  animals  as  the  poet  Virgil  in  his  "  Georgics."  I  take 
the  liberty  of  transcribing  a  few  appropriate  verses  of  the  same  from 
Mr.  Fleming's  "  Animal  Plagues  "  : 

"  Not  whirlwinds  from  the  sea  so  frequent  rush, 
Big  with  storm,  as  pests  'mid  cattle  rage. 
Nor  individuals  sole  disorders  seize, 
But,  suddenly,  whole  flocks,  with  every  liope, 
At  once,  and,  from  the  youngest,  all  the  race. 

"...  From  tainted  air  arose 
A  dreadful  storm,  inflamed  by  autumn's  heat, 
And  gave  to  doatli  all  cattle,  tamo  and  wild. 
Corrupting  lakes,  poisoning  the  grassy  food. 

"  Hence,  midst  the  springing  grass,  young  cattle  die, 
And  yield  their  gentle  lives  at  loaded  stalls; 
Ilenco,  madden  fawning  dogs,  and  the  sick  swine. 
With  suffocating  shake  and  panting  cough,  give  up  their  lives. 

"Lo!  a^  tlie  hull  under  the  plowshnre  smokes, 
He  falls,  and  vomits  mint'led  foam  and  gore, 
And  makes  his  final  groan; 

•  .\nr  one  dofirint;  to  road  a  most  interesting  archfrolngical  Ptudv,  should  not  fail  to 
obtain  Mr.  (Icorf^c  Fleming's  "  Horsoshoos  anil  Horspshooing,"  which  is  a  work  more  suit- 
able to  gi-neral  education  than  for  instruction  in  horseshoeing,  though  the  latter  part 
does  not  fail  in  this  particular. 


232  THE   HISTORY   OF  VETERINARY   MEDICINE. 

The  plowman  sad  disjoins  the  ox  that  mourns  his  brother's  fate, 

And  leaves  the  rooted  plow,  his  work  half  done. 

Move  him  not  now,  nor  stream  through  rocky  bed, 

That  pure  as  amber  freshens  all  the  plain. 

His  flanks  are  all  relaxed,  and  his  dull  eye 

A  stupor  covers,  and  to  earth  his  neck 

Down  rushes  with  the  heavy  weight  it  bore. 

"  What  profit,  then,  then*  service  and  their  toil  ? 
No  change  of  food  affords  relief, 
And  art,  implored,  destroys." 

I  have  endeavored,  briefly,  it  is  true,  to  sketcli  the  history  of 
veterinary  medicine  in  antiquity,  with  what  success  it  must  be  left 
to  the  reader  to  judge.  The  works  which  we  have  already  alluded 
to  remained  the  fountain  th"  t  supplied  nourishment  to  compiling 
authors  for  nearly  a  thousand  years:  for  it  is  not  until  the  middle 
of  the  thirteenth  century  that  any  work  of  original  importance  was 
added  to  our  literature.  In  the  tenth  century,  the  Emperor  Con- 
stantine  Porphyrogenitus,  911-951  a.  d.,  instigated  a  compilation 
which  included  about  all  the  works  which  had  until  then  aj)peared. 

Schraeder,  in  his  biographical  lexicon,  says  of  him  that  "he 
was  the  son  and  successor  of  the  Greek  Emperor  Leo.  To  him  we 
are  indebted  for  about  all  we  know  of  veterinary  medicine  uj)  to  his 
time.  He  favored  and  nourished  science  with  all  his  energy,  caused 
public  education  to  be  given  and  schools  to  be  erected,  which  he 
made  subservient  to  the  uses  of  the  state.  He  gave  his  whole  at- 
tention to  the  academy  at  Constantinople,  and  sought  to  increase  its 
usefulness  with  all  the  resources  at  his  disposal.  As  author  and 
polyhistorian,  he  gathered  books  from  all  parts  of  the  earth,  praised 
the  diligence  of  compilers,  and  caused  most  valuable  extracts  to  be 
made  from  innumerable  writings  upon  history,  agriculture,  and 
medicine,  a  task  which  had  never  before  been  undertaken,  and  even 
veterinary  medicine  was  not  neglected." 

Haeser  *  says  of  this  part  of  the  work,  which  was  entitled  the 
"  Hippiatrica,"  that  it  consisted  mostly  of  the  letters  of  Absyrtus, 
Emulus,  Hierokles,  Pelagonius,  Theomnestus,  Tiberius,  Anatolius, 
Archedemus,  Hippasius,  Tetrippus,  and  Stratonicus.  It  first  ap- 
peared in  a  Latin  translation,  under  the  title  "  Yeterinaria  Medi- 
cinse,"  libri  II,  Joh.  Ruello,  interp.,  Paris,  1530.  An  edition  in  the 
original  Greek  text  was  published  at  Basel,  1537,  under  the  title 
"  ToDV  L'mnarpL'xpiv  ^t^Xia  Sua)."  Translations  of  the  latter  appeared 
in  Italy,  15-13  ;  France,  1563  ;  Germany,  1571.     It  is  of  general  in- 

*  Loc.  cit.,  p.  546. 


THE    HISTORY   OF   VETERINARY    MEDICIXE.  233 

tercst  that  Leontius  asserts  in  tlie  Latin  edition  (the  phice  is  want- 
in^j^  in  the  Greek)  that  in  the  apparent  peat-like  ipizooties,  horses 
which  icere  healthy  were  carefulbj  separated  from  those  which  were 
diseased^  and  their  protection  was  sought  hij  bringing  them  iipon 
good  pastures.  Xo  such  regulation  is  to  be  found  in  any  work  of 
antiij[uity  against  the  frequent  pest  outbreaks  of  disease  among  hu- 
man beings. 

We  have  now,  in  a  very  cursory  numner,  traced  the  history  of 
veterinary  medicine,  or  better,  empiricism,  to  the  tenth  century, 
whicli  may  be  said  to  begin  the  '"  Stalihneisters,"  or  master  of  the 
horse  period.  This  period  continued  to  the  opening  of  the  schools, 
and  in  all  truth  may  be  said  to  be  still  with  us ;  for  every  one  well 
knows  the  taste  among  men  occupying  such  positions  to  write  ])rae- 
tical  books  '"  on  the  care  and  treatment  of  the  horse."  While  I 
would  not  deny  more  or  less  practical  and  empirical  ability  to  men 
occupying  these  positions,  I  must  em]iliatically  enter  an  earnest  pro- 
test against  an  American  absurdity  which  leads  otherwise  intelligent 
citizens  to  assume  that  such  persons  know  anything  of  disease,  and 
which  results  in  calling  in  to  attend  sick  animals  the  first  conven- 
ient stable-keeper,  blacksmith,  or  cow-herd  ;  that  because  such  men 
have  gained  a  certain  sort  of  practical  knowledge  with  regard  to 
the  care  of  our  domestic  animals  in  health,  it  is  justifiable  to  assume 
that  they  know  anything  of  them  in  disease.  Xo  greater  error  ex- 
ists than  this,  and  it  has  unfortunately  extended  itself  into  human 
practice,  much  to  the  cost  of  a  suffering  humanity.  Experience  is 
indeed  valuable,  but  experience  alone  has  proved  a  ledge  upon 
which  many  a  man  has  been  wrecked.  Times  come  when  your 
practical  man,  your  man  of  boasted  experience,  can  do  nothing  but 
stand  with  fcjlded  hands  and  wait.  Such  times  come  only  too  fre- 
quently to  the  man  of  still  greater  experience,  and  that  backed  up 
by  a  most  elaborate  education  and  reflective  ability.  AVithout  edu- 
cation, without  that  systematic  drilling  and  practice  which  can  only 
be  obtained  in  well-regulated  schools  and  hospitals,  experience  is 
worse  than  nothing  ;  it  results  in  nothing  more  than  the  most  absurd 
guess-work.  What  idea  can  a  man  have  of  inflammatory  processes 
in  the  lungs,  kidneys,  brain,  or  liver,  M-ho  scarcely  knows  the  seat  of 
those  organs,  much  less  anything  of  their  anatomical  construction  ? 
In  all  truth,  it  is  the  most  abject  form  of  cruelty  to  give  over  a  suf- 
fering dumb  animal  (alas  I  it  is  too  often  the  case  with  human  beings 
also)  to  the  tortures  or  futile  endeavors  of  one  of  these  "  experi- 
enced "  quacks.  Fortunate  would  it  be  for  humanity,  fortunate  for 
our  dumb  animals  as  well,  were  disease  and  its  treatment  the  simple 


234  THE   HISTORY   OF   VETERINARY  MEDICINE. 

thing  wliicli  sucli  actions  on  the  part  of  those  intrusted  with  their  care 
would  lead  iis  to  assume  that  it  was.  On  the  contrary,  the  study  of 
disease  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  tasks  which  the  human  intellect 
has  to  cope  with,  and,  while  many  men  pass  through  life  with  the 
reputation  of  successful  practitioners,  still  it  is  but  the  limited  few 
who  gain  entrance  to  the  "  holy  of  holies,"  and  acquire  much  inti- 
mate acquaintance  with  disease  itself.  That  an  occasional  quack  is 
rewarded  by  success  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  when  we  take  into 
consideration  the  recuperative  powers  of  Dame  l^ature  herself.  !Noth- 
ing  is  more  amusing,  more  saddening,  than  to  hear  self-important 
practitioners  hoast  of  their  cures.  It  is  very,  very  hard,  as  many  dis- 
tinguished men  have  admitted,  and  as  every  man  who  has  devoted 
time  to  experiment  in  pathological  and  therapeutical  research,  but 
especially  the  latter,  knows,  to  positively  decide  whether  the  im- 
provement which  one  sees  in  a  given  patient  is  due  to  the  recupera- 
tive powers  of  ^Nature,  to  a  weakening  of  the  active  properties  of 
the  cause  of  the  disease,  or  to  the  action  of  drugs  which  have  been 
offered. 

The  best  and  most  skillful  practitioners  are  but  handmaids.,  ser- 
vants, to  Nature,  and  he  is  the  best  practitioner  who  most  scrupu- 
lously holds  to  the  rule,  "  hands  off,"  and  wnth  religious  regard  aims 
to  support  the  ever-active  recuperative  power,  efforts,  of  the  physio- 
logical functions.  It  is  seldom  given  to  the  attendant  upon  organ- 
isms afflicted  with  inner  diseases  to  effect  radical  cures  /  this  boon 
is,  however,  occasionally  awarded  to  the  surgeon.  Only  the  quack 
proclaims  to  have  the  radical  panacea  which  can  cure  all  and  every- 
thing.    But  to  return  to  our  subject : 

The  period  which  we  are  now  considering  in  the  history  of  vet- 
erinary medicine  is  marked  by  the  appearance  of  several  works  of 
great  historical  importance.  The  first  of  these  was  the  "Hippi- 
atrica"  of  Jordanus  Rufus,  "  Marescallus  Major"  to  the  court  of 
Frederick  II  of  Sicily.  The  king  is  reported  to  have  assisted  on 
the  work.  Rufus  seems  to  have  known  but  little  of  the  writings  of 
his  Greek  and  Roman  predecessors,  but,  according  to  Haeser,  was 
not  unacquainted  with  several  works  of  Arabian  origin.  His  mind 
appears  to  have  been  remarkably  free  from  the  superstitions  of  his 
time.  He  describes  quite  a  number  of  diseases,  among  them  lami- 
nitis,  vulgarly  called  founder,  glanders,  tetanus,  etc. 

Schraeder  *  says  of  him :  "  He  was  born  in  Calabria,  in  the 
twelfth  or  thirteenth  century,  and  was  from  a  noble  family,  and, 
like  many  gentlemen  of  his  position,  busied  himself  with  training 

*  Loc.  cit.,  p.  368. 


TOE   HISTORY    OF   VETERINARY    MEDICINE.  035 

horses,  and  the  treatment  of  their  diseases.  That  lie  must  liavc  been 
an  important  personage,  and  much  esteemed  by  his  patnjn,  is  attested 
by  the  circumstance  that  his  names  appear  among  the  signers  of 
the  king's  testament:  ''Ego  Jordanus  maguus  justitia  ruis  Rufus 
de  Cahibria  imperialis  MarescaUus  major  interfui  his  et  subscribi 
feci."  (Frederick  reigned  from  1^12  to  1250  a.  d.)  Rufus's  work, 
''  De  Medifina  Ecpiorum,"  appears  to  have  been  written  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  king,  but  it  has  been  incorrectl}'  asserted 
that  the  latter  himself  wrote  it.  It  appears,  from  Rufus's  own 
words,  that  the  king  had  already  died  at  the  time  of  its  publication, 
which  accordingly  must  have  taken  place  subsequent  to  1250.  It 
was  written  in  Latin,  but  at  an  early  date  was  honored  with  transla- 
tions into  Italian,  and  in  ISIS  violin,  professor  in  Padua,  gave  out  a 
Latii\  edition.  None  of  the  ancient  Latin  works  upon  this  subject 
afford  more  pleasure  to  the  reader  than  this  of  Ruffus's.  From  it 
one  can  easily  perceive  that  he  was  a  person  of  considerable  expe- 
rience, far  exceeding  any  of  his  successors  in  ability  for  a  period  of 
nearly  four  hundred  years.  We  do  not  find  in  his  writings  any  of 
the  superstitious  fables  or  astrological  nonsense  which  encumbered  the 
works  of  his  predecessors;  he  was  an  earnest  student  of  Nature,  and 
erave  his  conclusions  with  earnestness  and  directness.  It  is  certain 
that  he  knew  little  of  Yegctius,  or  of  the  collected  writings  of  Greek 
authors  ;  at  least,  he  made  but  little  use  of  them.  Many  of  his  di- 
rections are  not  without  value  even  in  our  day.  Many  names  which 
he  gave  to  diseases  have  been  adopted  into  other  languages.  Hazard 
possessed  several  manuscripts,  and  especially  a  French  translation  of 
his  writings.  The  contents  of  one  of  these  manuscripts  on  vellum, 
from  the  fourteenth  century,  is  given  as  follows :  1.  The  Creation 
and  Nativity  of  the  Horse.  2.  His  Capture  and  Training.  3.  The 
Care  and  Treatment.  -4.  The  Recognition  of  the  Parts  of  the  Body. 
5.  The  Diseases.     6.  The  Medicines  and  Remedies. 

The  invention  of  printing  gave  a  great  im])etus  to  the  publica- 
tion of  works  of  all  kinds — to  a  degree,  in  fact,  which  we  of  this 
day  and  generation  can  scarcely  appreciate.  In  this  regard  the  pub- 
lication of  medical  works  kept  even  pace  with  those  of  theology  and 
other  bninches  of  learning.  In  our  own  field  of  study  there  ap- 
peared a  work  of  rare  value  ;  one,  indeed,  which  marks  a  turning- 
point  in  the  development  of  veterinary  medicine.  Up  to  this  time 
there  had  been  no  book  on  the  diseases  of  animals  since  the  days  of 
Aristotle  which  endeavored  to  enter  at  all  into  the  study  of  their 
anatomy  based  on  special  dissections.  This  ground  was  first  broken 
by  an  Italian  work  entitled  "  Dell'  Anatomia  et  dell'  Infirmita  del 


236  THE   HISTORY   OF  VETERINARY   MEDICINE. 

Cavallo,"  di  Carlo  Ruini,  senator  of  Bologna,  1598.  This  work 
contains  numerous  illustrations,  finely  executed,  when  we  take  into 
consideration  the  period  and  the  condition  of  equine  anatomy.  It 
remained  unequaled  for  nearly  two  hundred  years,  when  its  place 
was  in  part  taken  by  the  really  magnificent  '*  Cours  d'Hippiatrique  " 
of  Lafosse,^Z5,  Paris,  1T72. 

Carlo  Ruini*  was  born  and  died  in  the  sixteenth  century,  at 
Bologna,  Italy,  the  exact  date  being  unknown.  His  grandfather 
was  a  professor  of  note  at  the  university  of  that  place,  lecturing 
upon  jurisprudence.  Kuini  also  studied  the  same  subject,  and,  as 
stated  on  the  title-page  of  this  book,  became  senator  in  his  na- 
tive city.  But  little  is  known  of  his  life,  but  in  the  preface  of  the 
book  in  question  it  is  said  that  from  early  youth  he  displayed  a 
great  fondness  for  horses.  The  original  edition  of  this  work  ap- 
peared in  1598,  and  the  printing  and  paper  are  marvels  of  perfec- 
tion. Uffenbach  gave  out  a  German  translation,  and  several  from 
French  sources  soon  followed.  The  book  served  as  a  fountain  from 
which  subsequent  compilers  drew  much  information,  using  also  the 
illustrations,  which,  however,  frequently  lost  much  credit  in  the 
copies  made  of  them.  The  first  part  of  the  book  treats  of  the  anat- 
omy of  the  horse,  and  the  numerous  illustrations  testify  to  the  dili- 
gence of  the  author  in  dissections.  The  second  part  treats  of  the 
diseases  of  that  animal,  and  is  based  in  no  inconsiderable  degree 
upon  Euffus  and  other  authors.  As  little  as  the  authorship  is  in 
general  to  be  questioned,  yet  it  is  very  doubtful  if  the  "  Anato- 
mia  del  Cavallo  "  is  from  Ruini's  hand.  "  I  harbored  this  doubt," 
says  Schraeder,  "  very  early  in  my  study  of  this  book,  and  the  more 
I  have  reflected  upon  it  the  more  have  I  become  confirmed  in  my 
doubts.  It  is  my  opinion  that  some  young  doctor  had  at  his  own 
instigation,  or  perhaps  incited  by  Ruini,  studied  the  anatomy  of  the 
horse,  and  drew  the  illustrations,  and  had  them  engraved  upon  cop- 
per, which  could  not  be  done  save  at  considerable  expense,  which 
the  wealth  of  Ruini  made  possible." 

Ercolani,  one  of  the  most  learned  veterinarians  of  Italy,  and 
celebrated  for  his  researches  into  historical  veterinary  literature, 
questions  the  above  assertion,  and  gives  full  credit  to  Ruini. 

I  have  casually  mentioned  the  brilliant  contribution  to  veterinary 
literature,  the  "  Cours  d'Hippiatrique"  of  Lafosse^^^.  While  Rui- 
ni's  work  was  the  first  illustrated  book  of  any  account  which  had 
until  then  appeared,  that  of  Lafosse  was  the  first  book  with  colored 
plates  which  appeared  upon  equine  anatomy.  The  work  is  divided 
*  Schraeder-Hering,  loc.  cil.,  p.  369. 


THE    HISTORY   OF   VETERINARY    MEDICIN'E.  037 

into  three  parts,  ami  is  embellished  with  a  fine  copjier  print  of  the 
author.  The  first  part  treats  of  the  anatomy  of  the  horse  ;  the  sec- 
ond, of  its  diseases  and  their  treatment ;  the  third,  of  horseshoeing. 
It  is  impossible  to  doubt  the  influence  of  Ruini,  when  one  thought- 
fully compares  the  plates  and  the  arrangements  of  both  these  works. 
At  this  period  two  men,  father  and  son,  occupied  most  prominent 
positions  among  the  veterinarians  of  France.  I  must  beg  leave  to 
nourish  the  opinion,  heretical  as  it  may  seem,  that  it  was  an  unfor- 
tunate thing  for  France,  unfortunate  for  the  development  of  veteri- 
nary science,  not  art,  that  the  first  veterinary  schools  established  at 
Lyons  and  Alfort,  France,  were  not  established  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  younger  Lafosse,  rather  than  under  that  of  his  great 
rival,  Bourgelat.  Bourgelat  was  a  horseman,  eminently  practical  / 
hence  we  see  horseshoeing  and  all  practical  routine  assuming  a 
jilace  in  French  veterinary  medicine,  at  the  cost  of  the  scientific  in- 
vestigating spirit,  which  would  not  have  been  the  case  had  the  more 
scientific  and  original  but  not  the  less  practical  Lafosse  been  the 
guiding  star.  I  wish  to  call  particular  attention  to  this  opinion,  for 
here  in  America  we  are  in  great  danger  of  losing  the  true  union  of 
science  and  practice,  before  the  great  practical  common  sense  that 
our  people  are  so  fond  of  assuming  to  themselves.  "We  have  not  yet 
learned,  at  least  so  far  as  the  study  and  development  of  medicine  is 
concerned,  that  experience  is  a  dear  task-master.  I  would  not  have 
it  inferred  that  I  would  neglect  the  practical — I  am  too  much  of 
an  American  for  that — but  true  practice  must  ever  stand  upon  the 
results  of  scientific  research  ;  upon  an  empiricism  based  upon  some- 
thing else  than  the  trrtditions  and  errors  of  our  forefathers  ;  the 
things  which  have  been,  but  which  have  never  at  the  same  time 
been  subjected  to  the  skeptical  crucible  of  the  experimental,  scien- 
tific researcher. 

As  the  two  Lafosscs.  especially  the  son,  exerted  such  an  influ- 
ence on  the  development  of  veterinary  medicine,  a  short  notice  of 
their  lives  can  not  be  out  of  place  here. 

"■  Etienne  Guillaume  Lafosse,*  the  father,  was  born  in  Paris, 
and  died  there  January  24,  1765,  Little  that  is  authentic  is  known 
with  reference  to  his  life — he  appears  to  have  been  lost  sight  of  be- 
hind the  greater  renown  of  his  glorious  son.  Yet  it  was  to  him  that 
the  son  owed  his  careful  education  in  the  scientific  and  practical  ele- 
ments of  his  profession.  The  father  had,  however,  given  us  some 
idea  of  his  ability  by  his  investigations  on  the  seat  of  glanders, 
published  in  1779,  in  a  treatise  entitled  "  Le  veritable  siege  de  la 
*  Schracder-IIcring,  loc.  eit.y  p.  234. 


238  THE  HISTORY  OF  VETERINARY  MEDICINE. 

morve  (glanders)  et  les  moyens  d' j  remedier  "  ;  in  1750  he  gave  to 
the  Academy  a  brochure  upon  lycoperdon  as  a  haemostatic,  anti- 
bleeding  medicine ;  and  in  ITSi  published  a  work  on  horseshoeing. 
Other  writings  upon  horseshoeing  and  ^^ractice  followed,  several  of 
which,  as  also  the  above,  were  honored  with  translations  into  other 
languages." 

"  Pliil.  Etienne  Lafosse,  the  son,  was  born  at  Montaterre,  near 
Paris,  and  it  is  said  died  at  Yilleneuve,  upon  the  Yonne,  June,  1820. 
He  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  former  Lafosse,  and  at  thirteen  years 
of  age  decided  to  follow  the  calling  which  had  been  so  honorably 
followed  by  his  father  and  grandfather."  (It  should  be  mentioned 
here  that  this  family  has  been  one  of  the  most  noted  among  those 
which  have  given  worthy  veterinarians  to  France,  and  that  it  is  not 
without  honorable  representatives  at  the  present  day.)  "At  the 
conclusion  of  his  school-days,  his  father  required  him  to  serve  for  a 
time  in  his  stables,  where  he  acquired  proficiency  in  the  handling 
and  care  of  horses ;  he  then  went  into  the  forge  for  two  years,  and 
at  the  same  time  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  human  anatomy. 
He  also  received  instruction  in  fencing,  drawing,  and  music.  Then 
followed  practical  experience,  gained  by  accompanying  his  father 
upon  professional  visits,  at  the  same  time  continuing  the  study  of 
equine  anatomy.  By  visiting  knacker  establishments,  and  making 
autopsies,  he  constantly  enriched  his  collection  of  specimens.  At 
eighteen  years  of  age  he  received  an  appointment  to  lecture  upon 
equine  anatomy  to  the  members  of  the  light  cavalry  stationed  at 
Yersailles.  He  also  did  the  same  at  the  house  of  his  father  for  the 
students  in  the  forge.  In  1758  we  find  him  stationed  as  army- 
veterinarian,  and  accompanying  the  army  in  two  campaigns  into 
Germany  during  the  Seven  Years'  War.  On  his  return  he  studied 
medicine  at  Paris.  In  1767  he  built  an  amphitheatre,  and  gave 
therein  free  lectures  and  demonstrations  upon  equine  anatomy ; 
these  lectures  enjoyed  great  and  deserved  notoriety,  but  in  1770  he 
gave  them  up  in  order  to  bring  to  completion  his  great  work,  "  Cours 
d'Hippiatrique  "  ;  the  same  cost  Lafosse  seventy  thousand  livres,  and 
gave  him  an  immortal  reputation,  especially  in  foreign  countries. 
He  did  not,  however,  enjoy  the  same  good  fortune  among  his  own 
people,  for,  not  only  in  this  work,  but  also  in  his  "  Dictionnaire 
d'Hippiatrique,"  17Y5,  he  displayed  a  most  active  opposition  to  the 
schools  at  Lyons  and  Alfort,  or  rather,  against  their  founder,  Bour- 
gelat.  He  nourished  a  great  ambition  to  become  a  teacher,  or  even 
director,  at  one  of  these  schools,  but  his  severe  polemics  seem  to 
have  completely  shut  him  off  from  the  desired  end.     Bourgelat  was 


THE    HISTORY    OF   VKTEKIXAUY    MEDICINE.  239 

a  far  more  politic  character,  and  stood  in  lii^li  favor  witli  tlie  min- 
istry, and  his  scholars  gave  him  such  ardent  support  that  the 
severe  critique  of  his  opponent  passed  him  liarmlessly  by.  Tlie 
disappointment  to  his  ambition,  in  unison  with  sufferinfi^s  caused 
by  a  stone  in  the  bhidder,  made  him  sell  his  house  in  Paris  and 
remove  to  Russia,  where  he  remained  from  1777  to  1781.  It  is  not 
definitely  known  what  positions  he  occupied  while  tliere.  But  in 
no  case  could  he  find  himself  at  home  in  the  despotism  ruling  in 
Russia,  and  soon  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  rapidly  assumed  a 
position  at  court  as  veterinarian,  and  was  also  appointed  to  a  simi- 
lar position  in  the  carabiniers  and  gendarmes.  From  his  discon- 
tent with  the  government,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  we  find 
him  taking  an  active  part  in  the  acts  of  the  Revolutit)n,  which 
soon  followed :  he  was  present  at  the  storming  of  the  Invalides  and 
Bastile ;  became  a  member  of  the  armed  commission,  division  com- 
mander, and  municipal  officer  of  Paris.  But  we  do  not  find  his 
revolutionary  ideas  confined  to  politics  alone  ;  his  hatred  against  the 
existing  veterinary  institutions  and  Bourgelat  again  found  full  vent, 
and  he  easily  saw  reasons  for  the  suppression  of  both,  and  the  rc- 
mt)val  of  the  schools  to  Paris;  among  other  things,  he  accused  the 
existing  powers  of  supporting  a  costly  and  unnecessary  menagerie, 
besides  unnecessary  instruments,  and  of  accumulating  a  debt,  in 
the  years  between  17S2  and  1785,  of  thirty  thousand  livres.  La- 
fosse  was  a  hippologist  par  excelhnce^  and  this  exclusive  devotion 
to  the  horse  wius  used  successful!}'  in  the  arguments  against  his 
polemic  attacks  on  the  existing  institutions.  Although  the  authori- 
ties took  so  little  notice  of  his  polemics,  yet  Lafosse  did  not  fail 
entirely  of  public  appreciation,  for  we  find  him  appointed  to  sev- 
eral important  positions  as  inspector  and  examiner  in  connection 
with  the  army.  In  all  these  he  displayed  his  usual  activity.  On 
the  29th  of  July,  1794,  he  narrowly  escaped  death  upon  the  scaf- 
fold. He  then  left  Paris,  occasionally  revisiting  it,  however,  and 
retired  to  the  country,  where  he  busied  himself  in  scientific  studies, 
occasionally  appearing  before  the  public  In  17i>7  he  read  a  pajier 
before  the  National  Institute,  entitled  "  Memoire  sur  une  maladie 
epizooticpie  vaccinique  dans  le  Canton  de  Bray,  qui  a  regni  pendant 
Tet^  de  Tan  V,  jusqu'd  la  fin  de  vend^miairc  an  VI."  Other  i)apei-s 
followed  this  of  no  less  importance.  In  179r»  he  was  elected  asso- 
ciate member  of  the  Institute,  but,  notwithstanding  earnest  endeavor 
on  his  part  and  that  of  his  friends,  he  diil  not  succeed  in  becoming 
virtually  a  member.  In  1819  he  again  vented  his  hatred  against 
the  schools  in  a  writing  entitled  "  Nouvellc  Theorie  pratique  d'equi- 


240  THE   HISTORY   OF  VETERINARY   MEDICINE. 

tation."  He  possessed  bis  great  activities  until  tlie  close  of  liis  days, 
and  frequently  complained  of  the  unthankfulness  of  his  fatherland 
— an  ingratitude  which,  notwithstanding  his  failures,  is  still  dis- 
creditable to  his  countrymen,  for  if  Bourgelat  deserves  a  monument 
to  his  memory  for  what  he  did  for  France,  Lafosse  no  less  deserves 
one  for  his  services  to  the  world  at  large,  for  none  of  the  literary 
work  of  Bourgelat  equals  that  which  has  given  a  world-wide  repu- 
tation to  the  greater  Lafosse. 

Other  books,  which  have  acquired  at  least  a  certain  historical 
importance,  but  which  are  of  but  little  practical  value,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  at  the  present  day,  were  the  "Parfait  Marechal"  of 
Solleysel,  1664,  which  was  honored  with  translations  into  several  for- 
eign languages ;  the  writings  of  Saunier,  mostly  based  upon  books 
which  had  preceded  him;  Diaz,  in  Spain,  Yon  Zind,  Newcastle, 
Winter  von  Adler's  Flugel ;  Marx  Fugger,  on  Breeding  ;  the  "  Foure 
Chiefest  Offices  of  Horsemanship,  whereto  are  added,  Diverse  Medi- 
cines not  Heretofore  Mentioned,"  by  Thomas  Blundeville,  of  New- 
ton Flotman,  in  Norfolk,  England :  London,  1609.  (Blundeville  is, 
I  believe,  the  originator  of  the  term  "  Poll-Evil ") ;  the  "  Hippono- 
mia,  or  Vineyard  of  Horsemanship,"  Baret,  1661 ;  "  Master  Peese, 
Containing  all  the  Knowledge  Belonging  to  the  Smith,  Farrier, 
Horse-Leech,"  etc.  ;  the  "  Complete  Horseman,"  of  William  Hope, 
1696;  "The  Farriers  New  Guide,"  by  Gibson,  1719;  Snape's 
"Anatomy  of  the  Horse,"  1751 ;  and  a  very  remarkable  book  from 
Stubbs,  on  the  "  Anatomy  of  the  Horse,"  1766.  During  this  long 
period  the  Continent  of  Europe  and  Britain  had  been  frequently 
overrun  with  animal  plagues.  Interesting  as  a  condensed  history 
of  these  invasions  would  be,  it  is  not  my  purpose  to  enter  upon  it 
here,  but  gladly  refer  those  who  care  to  pursue  this  subject  to 
the  very  elaborate  work  of  Mr.  George  Fleming,  entitled  "Ani- 
mal Plagues,"  where  it  is  treated  in  detail.  Of  these  plagues, 
the  rinderpest  and  pleuro-pneumonia  of  cattle  caused  the  most  se- 
rious devastations,  and  I  shall  presently  have  occasion  to  quote 
largely  from  the  above-mentioned  "Animal  Plagues,"  from  the 
writings  of  three  men  who  played  an  important  part  in  their  sup- 
pression, but  better  still,  in  instructing  the  people  and  governments 
in  the  means  of  combating  them ;  instruction  which  is  as  applicable 
to  our  day  as  it  was  when  written,  over  one  hundred  years  ago. 

It  is  scarcely  possible  for  the  people  in  this  country  to  form  any 
conception  of  the  devastation  and  misery  caused  by  these  plagues  in 
Europe  during  the  eighteenth  century ;  and  not  only  these,  but 
plagues  unknown  to  us,  carried  death  and  misery  among  the  pec- 


THE   HISTORY   OF   VETERIXARV   MnDiriyE.  241 

pie  themselves.  AVai-s  on  wai-s,  •\vitli  all  their  accompanying  evils, 
lunl  impoverished  hoth  the  governments  and  })eople.  Epidemic  on 
epidemic  had  almost  broken  all  the  himling  ties  of  kindred  and  affec- 
tion. Plague  on  plague  had  driven  people  to  the  last  verge  of  hope 
for  sustenance  and  wealth,  by  robbing  them  of  their  animals,  more) 
especially  cattle.  "  It  has  been  computed  that  from  1711  to  1714  no; 
fewer  than  one  million  five  hundred  thousand  cattle  died  in  Europe' 
from  cattle-plague."  A  competent  authority  tells  us  that  between' 
1711)  and  1709  "not  less  than  two  hundred  millions  of  cattle  were! 
destroyed  by  rinderpest  alone."  *  These  figures  might  easily  be 
aufirmented  to  a  deffree  almost  bevond  human  concei>tion.  In  our 
own  day  millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  valuable  animal  property  is 
yearly  swept  away  by  these  ravaging  destroyers.  Ignorance  and  su- 
perstition prevailed  among  the  people.  Where  should  they  look  for 
aid  ?  The  doctors  were  powerless.  The  veterinary  empiricism  of 
the  day  sank  as  an  imbecile  before  the  furious  storm.  The  Church 
cried  that  the  Almighty  was  angry,  and  punishing  the  world  for  its 
sins.  "  Come  to  me — I  alone  can  save  you !  "  said  an  equally  iinbecile 
priesthood.  The  people  went !  Instead  of  help,  they  found  husks. 
In  spite  of  the  invocations  of  anointed  bishops,  in  spite  of  the  sacred 
and  all-preserving  charms  which  the  Church  affirmed  were  possessed 
by  the  consecrated  oils,  or  by  the  burning  cross,  or  heated  key  of 
the  all-holy  saints,  Martin  and  Angelo,  in  spite  of  Inquisitional  tor- 
tures inflicted  upon  an  already  suffering  animal  world  by  these  bar- 
barians of  the  Church,  in  spite  of  all  the  powers  of  man,  on  went 
the  ravaging  pests,  carrying  death  and  misery  in  their  path. 

Empirical  curers,  then  as  now,  were  to  be  had  on  all  sides,  but 
their  medicines  were  as  empty  of  effect  as  their  brains  were  of 
knowledge.  The  so-called  veterinary  profession  was  as  powerless 
as  the  mighty  Church  ;  priestly  imbecile  and  veterinary  quack  joined 
hands  in  producing  nothing.  "Woe,  woe  was  on  every  side !  Hope 
alone  was  all  that  poor  humanity  had  to  depend  upon.  Men  felt 
that  they  were  indeed  deserted  by  (rod,  and  that  the  Father  of  the 
heavens  was  no  more  mindful  of  his  children.  But  this  was  only 
so  in  ajipearance. 

AVe  have  arrived  at  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  found — what?  That  no  veterinary  science  existed;  that  no 
veterinarians  had  added  anything  of  much  value,  other  than  a  few- 
things  of  practical  import,  to  human  knowledge.  But  the  medical 
profession  had  not  been  idle.  "While  Luther  was  battling,  as  a  son 
of  Mars,  for  the  freedom  of  the  human  intellect  from  the  trammels 

•  "  AniiDal  Plagues." 
16 


242  THE   HISTORY   OF  VETERIXARY   MEDICINE. 

of  an  imbecile  snperstition,  and  in  part  demoralized  priesthood, 
Truth  was  not  without  her  able  representatives  in  many  fields  of 
science.  Yesalius  was  following  in  the  path  of  Luther,  and  bring- 
ing things  which  had  been,  until  then,  hidden  in  an  impenetrable 
darkness,  to  the  light  of  the  world ;  the  human  body  was,  for  the 
first  time,  subjected  to  the  analytical  power  of  the  human  intellect, 
and  the  anatomist's  scalpel  was  daily  revealing  truths  before  which 
the  superstitions  and  myths  of  thousands  of  years  disappeared  as  the 
mists  before  the  morning  sun.  The  Church  shouted  her  anathemas, 
but  in  vain.  In  spite  of  curse,  hatred,  persecution,  and  calumny,  on 
went  the  bark  of  truth,  emphatically  testifying  to  the  wisdom  of 
the  words  of  the  Eastern  sage,  "  Truth  alone  is  the  mightiest  of  all 
things,  and  will  live  forever."  Yesalius  was  a  reformer  of  the  truest 
type  ;  but  to  progress,  other  elements  are  also  necessary.  They  seek 
to  pull  down,  not  to  build  up  ;  they  serve  to  tear  away  the  cobwebs, 
which,  as  superstitions,  prevent  the  new  light  from  gaining  entrance 
into  dark  corners.  The  sun  of  revolution  in  medicine  found  its 
representative  in  Paracelsus,  a  wonderful  mixture  of  superstition 
and  common  sense  himself,  but  nevertheless  a  man  who  did  no 
small  work  in  preparing  the  way  for  the  truth  to  enter  men's  minds. 
On  went  the  march  of  investigation.  "  More !  more ! "  was  the  cry 
of  a  hungering  humanity ;  and  the  answer  came  in  the  great  and  im- 
mortal Harvey's  unlocking  the  keys  to  an  unknown  fountain,  and 
teaching  men  how  the  flowing  blood  was  forced  through  their  or- 
ganisms. England  then  denied  her  child,  to  honor  him  in  future 
generations  as  among  the  "  anointed  "  of  the  sons  of  men.  Tlie 
great  Hunter  laid  the  foundation  of  a  new  science,  and  made  the 
world  a  debtor,  by  laying  the  foundation  of  the  first  museum  for 
pathological  anatomy.  Boerhaave  was  teaching  a  mighty  class  of 
scholars,  whose  fame  was  to  make  his  great  name  still  more  famous. 
Yan  Zwieten  laid  the  foundation  of  the  first  hospital  in  Yienna. 
Glisson  started  the  doctrine  of  the  irritability  of  the  tissues,  which 
found  its  more  complete  elucidation  at  the  hands  of  Haller,  im- 
mortal physiologist,  poet,  philosopher,  statesman,  and  naturalist. 
Harvey  and  Haller  must  be  looked  upon  as  the  fathers  of  modern 
physiology.  It  is  not  an  uninteresting  fact  that  Harvey  freed  the 
world  of  errors  which  had  been  held  ever  since  its  beginning,  in  the 
same  year  (1620)  that  our  "Pilgrim  fathers"  broke  the  ground  in 
favor  of  human  rights  on  the  "Western  Continent.  Haller,  Lancisi, 
Ramazzini,  Bates,  and  others,  did  the  work  that  an  incompetent  vet- 
erinary profession  could  not  do,  by  describing  the  animal  plagues, 
especiaUy  pleuro-pneumonia  and  cattle-plague.     Xot  only  did  these 


THE   HISTORY   OF   VETKRI.VARY    MEDICLNE.  243 

men  describe,  tliey  also  made  most  careful  observations  as  to  the 
manner  in  which  these  pests  extended,  and  elucidated  means  of 
prevention  entirely  applicable  to  our  day,  and  which  had  we,  in  this 
country,  sense  enough  to  study  and  follow,  would  save  us  untold 
millions  in  the  future.  So  true  are  the  descriptions  given  by  these 
men,  so  far-seeing  the  instructions  they  give  for  prevention,  that  I 
feel  myself  impelled  to  give  them  here. 

Speaking  of  the  animal  pest  which  devastated  Europe  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  Fleming  says  :  "  The  cattle-plague — rinderpest 
— continued  its  ravages  in  all  the  countries  named  in  the  preceding 
year  (1712).  In  Knssia,  it  had  enlarged  its  boundaries.  In  Ger- 
many, it  was  reported  at  various  places.  It  was  still  spreading  in 
Switzerland  ;  but  in  Holland  its  violence  was  excessive;  it  was  said 
tluit  there  alone,  between  1713  and  1723,  it  destroyed  two  hundred 
thousand  cattle.  In  Italy  it  was  steadily  marching  on,  and  causing 
havoc  on  all  sides.  In  Naples,  Calabria,  and  liomagna,  its  advances 
were  causing  the  utmost  apprehension  and  fear.  The  learned  doc- 
tor and  j)hysician  of  Pojie  Clement  XI,  Giovanni  Lancisi,  was  sent 
to  investigate  the  nature  and  prescribe  measures  for  the  suppression 
of  the  pest.  To  the  ability  of  this  man,  while  obeying  his  instruc- 
tions, we  are  much  indebted  for  an  accurate  description  of  the  symp- 
toms and  posi-mortciii  appearances  of  the  malady,  as  manifested  in 
that  part  of  the  Roman  dominions.  His  report  is  as  follows  :  '  In 
the  middle  of  the  summer  of  1713  there  was  a  rumor  at  Rome  that 
a  large  number  of  infected  oxen  from  districts  on  the  Mediterranean 
were  being  driven  from  the  market  of  Frusinoso  to  us ;  wherefore 
it  was  wisely  decreed  that  no  markets  should  be  held,  or  any  cattle 
be  driven  into  the  place.  But  merchants  introduced  oxen  into  the 
city  S'Crithj  h>j  hij-icays^  hecause  their  Iwpes  of  selling  thnn  publicly 
hadhein  frustrated  ;  and  these ^  heiny  driven  ahout  in  all  directions^ 
and  l>€coming  mixed  with  our  hitherto  healthy  stock,  spread  ahroad 
the  disease.  For,  ichen  foreign  merchants  had  doubtful  or  suspi- 
cious cattle,  which  they  could  not  sell  in  their  own  country,  they 
brought  them  to  Home  surreptitiously,  and  sold  them  for  less  tfian 
the  usual  price."*  "  * 

This  pliilosopher  and  far-seeing  jiatriot  gives  us  such  a  high 
opinion  of  his  wisdom  and  truthfulness  in  his  work  on  this  plague, 
that  we  nuist  quote  more  largely  from  his  report,  lie  had  no  doubt 
whatever  as  to  its  being  an  inijiorted  disease.  As  (piic-kly  as  pos- 
sible, when  its  presence  was  discovered,  all  traffic  in  cattle  was  to  be 
prohibited,  and  the  law  enforced  with  the  utmost  rigor  in  the  case  of 
*  Fleming,  "History  of  .\nimal  Plagues,"  p.  198. 


244  THE   HISTORY   OF  VETERIXART   MEDICIXE. 

those  who  moved  cattle  about.  But  the  disease  was  still  raging ;  "  as 
a  neglected  spark  at  first,  it  had  at  length  set  Italy  in  a  blaze,"  and 
was  extending  everywhere.  Lancisi  described  the  disease,  dwelt  on 
its  terrific  character  and  the  hopelessness  of  medical  treatment,  and 
then  recommended  what  he  deemed  the  wisest  course.  "  I  advised 
that  every  diseased  animal  should  be  killed ;  for,  I  maintained  that, 
should  they  be  left  to  a  slow  death,  the  cost  of  medicines,  veterinary 
surgeons,  attendants,  and  other  means,  would  be  very  great,  and  not 
only  this,  but  their  very  presence  would  assist  in  the  diffusion  of  the 
contagion.  The  Sacred  College,  however,  ordained  that  this  meas- 
ure was  too  severe,  and  that  remedies  should  be  tried ;  and,  in  tnith, 
they  were  greatly  influenced  in  this  decision  by  the  number  of  people 
who  pretended  that  they  had  infallible  cures  for  the  affection.  But 
the  fact  is,"  added  Lancisi,  •'  that  in  the  cattle,  as  in  the  human 
plague,  not  every  one  who  takes  the  disease  dies  of  it.  Some  re- 
cover, thanks  to  Nature,  rather  than  to  the  remedies  which  are  re- 
sorted to."  The  attempts  to  cure  the  disease  only  resulted  in  failure, 
and  its  indefinite  extension.  Edicts  were  issued,  forbidding  the 
bringing  of  cattle  from  the  Cam23agna  into  the  district  of  Home, 
under  the  penalty  of  death  to  a  layman,  and  of  the  galleys  for  life 
to  an  ecclesiastic.  The  sale  of  hides  was  interdicted,  and  the  flesh, 
horns,  and  fat  of  the  animals  were  ordered  to  be  buried  in  deep  pits 
and  covered  with  quicklime.  Measures  were  taken  to  prevent  the 
sale  of  diseased  meats.  Inspectors  were  appointed  to  visit  the  mar- 
kets, and  only  those  pieces  of  flesh  which  were  stamped  with  a  hot 
iron  by  the  inspector  were  allowed  to  be  sold.  Skinning  the  dead 
carcasses  was  forbidden,  as  it  might  lead  to  the  further  extension  of 
the  disease.  The  severity  of  the  edicts  was  complained  of ;  "  but  it 
is  a  fact,"  he  adds,  "  that  here^  where  the  laws  were  strictly  enforced, 
the  plague  was  arrested  much  sooner  than  in  other  parts  of  Italy." 

The  various  edicts  issued  by  the  Sacred  College  are  given  at 
length  by  Lancisi.  He  thinks  "  they  will  be  of  great  service  to  pos- 
terity if  a  similar  misfortune  should  ever  again  happen — which  may 
Heaven  avert ! " 

Posterity  has  heedlessly  passed  them  by  many  and  many  times, 
and  has  consequently  paid  the  penalties  of  its  neglect. 

The  last  chapter  of  this  invaluable  work  sums  up  his  admirable 
reflections  upon  this  disease  :  "  The  steps  which  a  wise  government 
should  instantly  take,  whenever  the  pestilence  may  again  appear 
upon  our  borders,  are  these  :  all  roads  and  by-paths  should  be  care- 
fully guarded,  so  that  no  ox  or  dog  be  allowed  to  enter  the  coimtry. 
Any  animal  so  entering  should  be  forthwith  destroyed  and  buried. 


THE  HISTORY  OF  VETERINARY   MEDICINE.  245 

Should  the  pestilence,  however,  gain  admission,  the  separation  of 
the  sick  from  the  healthy  must  be  enforced  by  decree.  Luhed^  in 
my  oj^inioHj  by  far  the  safcd  course  Is  instantly  to  destroy  tlie  ani- 
mal with  the  poh'-axe^  so  that  no  infected  hlood  may  escape  on  the 
ground  ;  for,  in  attempting  to  cure  the  diseased  animal,  the  veteri- 
nary surgeon  may  convey  the  disease  to  healthy  animals.  The 
healthy  cattle  nmst  be  removed  from  their  former  pastures,  which 
must  be  roirarded  as  contaminated.  The  diseased  oxen  should  be 
kept  in  stables,  to  which  no  one  is  admitted  except  the  veterinary 
surgeon  or  the  herdsman.  The  fountains  and  vessels  used  by  the 
animals  should  be  frequently  cleaned  with  quicklime.  The  clothes 
of  the  shepherds  should  also  be  fumigated.  The  dead  carcasses,  from 
which  not  one  hair  is  to  be  removed,  must  be  buried  in  deep  pits  ; 
any  saliva  or  secretions  which  may  drop  from  them  on  the  way  to 
the  pit  are  to  be  carefully  removed.  If  any  cows  are  infected,  their 
milk  is  instantly  to  be  thrown  into  a  hole  in  the  ground  ;  and  the 
severest  punishment  should  be  inflicted  on  those  who  disobey  this 
order.     The  passage  of  all  rustics  and  dogs  should  be  forbidden." 

That  Lancisi's  teachings  liave  not  been  entirely  neglected  is 
shown  by  the  following  letter,  written  to  Mr.  Fleming  while  I  was 
a  student  in  Germany:* 

My  dear  Sir  :  I  have  just  read  your  very  judicious  and  reason- 
able letter  in  the  "Times,"  on  the  ''Cattle-Plague,"  and  being  here 
at  Berlin,  the  headijuarters  of  this  outbreak,  it  may  not  be  uninter- 
esting to  you  to  hear  from  me  as  to  what  I  have  seen. 

The  whole  state,  we  will  say,  is  divided  into  thirty-six  depart- 
ments, and  these  again  are  subdivided  into  districts  ;  over  each 
of  these  districts  is  an  official  veterinarian,  known  as  the  "  Kreis- 
Thierarzt,"  or  district  veterinary  surgeon,  and  the  same  arrange- 
ment is  carried  out  over  the  entire  Empire  of  Germany.  All  these 
men  are  selected  for  their  ability,  and  especially  for  their  knowledge 
of  contagious  animal  diseases ;  in  the  smaller  towns  the  "  Kreis- 
Tbierarzt"  is  one  of  the  men  of  the  town,  and  has  for  so<'iety  those 
who  are  considered  the  leading  men  of  the  place.  The  "  Departc- 
ments-Thierarzt"  is  a  much  greater  character;  he  is  an  unusually 
well-educated  person,  who  nmst  be  thoroughly  posted  in  regard  to 
the  laws  of  the  empire  relative  to  his  profession  and  duties,  and  is 
responsible  to  the  local  state  authorities,  as  well  as  to  the  ministry, 
for  the  faithful  performance  of  his  duties  ;  the  "  Kreis-Thieriir/.te  " 
are  responsible  to  those  of  the  departments.  These  officers  all  re- 
ceive salaries  from  the  state,  varying  from  fifty  to  four  hundred 

•  Published  ia  the  "  Veterinary  Journal,"  1879. 


246  THE   HISTORY   OF  VETERINARY   MEDICIXE. 

pounds  per  year,  and  also  are  permitted  to  receive  fees  for  their 
official  attendance  in  addition  to  their  regular  fees.  They  are  fur- 
ther favored  in  their  practice  bj  their  official  positions,  it  being  a 
guarantee  to  the  public  of  their  competencv.  Prussia  does  much  to 
encourage  graduated  students  to  continue  their  studies.  This  -win- 
ter some  thirty  men,  from  twenty-five  to  forty  years  of  age,  are  re- 
ceiving about  forty  pounds  each  from  the  Government  to  pay  their 
expenses  in  Berlin,  while  they  are  attending  lectures  and  studying ; 
and  at  the  time  I  write  they  are  being  examined  for  higher  positions. 
Every  year  a  new  set  arrives  ;  so  you  will  understand  that  our  sci- 
ence is  properly  encouraged  on  the  Continent,  and  a  man  has  some 
incentive  to  work.  In  Prussia,  to  every  4*75  square  miles  (geo- 
graphical) there  is  a  veterinary  surgeon,  and  to  his  care  are  confided 
1,544  horses,  4,592  cattle,  14,221  sheep,  2,192  hogs ;  and  there  are 
(these  figures  apply  to  1875)  1,290  veterinary  practitioners.  This 
has  no  reference  to  the  number  of  official  veterinarians. 

These  few  remarks  will  serve  as  an  introduction  to  the  remainder 
of  my  letter.  Early  in  January  there  was  an  unusual  excitement  to 
be  noticed  around  our  school ;  messengers  were  to  be  seen  rapidly 
passing  between  the  offices  of  the  Minister  of  Agriculture  and  the 
school  officials.  It  soon  transpired  that  "  der  Teufel's  los,"  as  it  was 
expressed  to  me,  or,  in  other  words,  the  "  rinderpest "  was  in  Ham- 
burg. It  took  but  a  short  time  to  arrange  mattei*s.  Professor  Miil- 
ler,  whom  you  know  as  an  anatomist,  and  a  great  authoi-ity  upon 
this  scourge,  was  dispatched  to  Hamburg  with  a  high  government 
officer.  Another  great  expert  was  sent  to  the  Russian  frontier ; 
every  department  veterinary  officer  was  notified  by  telegraph,  and 
in  less  than  twelve  hours  an  embargo  was  placed  upon  every  head 
of  horned  cattle  in  Germany.  If  I  mistake  not,  your  Government 
was  officially  informed  of  the  sailing  of  the  Castor  with  infected 
cattle  from  Hamburg,  in  sufficient  time  to  have  stopped  her  before 
reaching  London.  She  should  have  been  stopped  some  distance 
from  that  port,  her  hatches  battened  down,  and  the  vessel  and  cargo 
towed  somewhere,  sunk,  and  paid  for  by  the  Government.  If  this 
was  in  reality  the  first  infected  cargo,  then  England  would  perhaps 
have  been  preserved  from  a  serious  loss  ;  the  future  can  alone  prove 
what  the  loss  may  be. 

To  return  to  the  outbreak  in  Germany.  The  Berlin  and  all 
other  markets  were  most  vigilantly  watched,  and  no  cattle  or  other 
animals  were  allowed  to  be  removed  from  them  alive  for  slaughter 
in  the  city.  (All  cattle  moved  at  any  time  from  the  markets  in 
Berlin  are  moved  only  in  large  cattle-wagons ;  the  same  is  true  of 


THE    HISTORY    OF   VETEIilN'AIiY    MEDICINE.  247 

every  other  marketable  animal,  e\i'ej)t  horses.  Glanilered  horses 
and  suspected  horses  are  invariably  moved  in  wagons,  either  to  the 
school  for  inspection,  or  to  the  knackers,  to  be  immediately  killed.) 
All  cattle  that  had  to  be  removed  were  tirst  rigidly  inspected,  and 
then  conveyed  in  wagons,  and  put  directly  upon  the  cars;  and  bo  it 
was  all  over  the  country.  Alluding  to  your  remarks  in  the  "  Times," 
on  the  futility  of  inspection  when  the  disease  is  latent,  a  fine  in- 
stance occurred  here,  which  our  mutual  friend  Professor  Dieck- 
erhoff  unraveled  with  his  customary  ability.  He  was  called  to 
"\Vest})halia,  it  being  rej^ortcd  that  a  cow  there  was  suspiciously  dis- 
eased. On  his  arrival  the  cow  in  question  had  been  killed,  or  had 
died,  but  her  illness  was  said  not  to  have  been  rinderpest.  It  was, 
huwever,  reported  that  another  cow  was  sick,  and  this  animal  was 
immediately  placed  under  lock  and  seal,  and  the  case  proved  to  be 
one  of  rinderpest.  As  the  story  is  interesting,  it  may  be  useful  to 
relate  it  in  full :  This  cow  had  been  bought  in  Berlin  by  a  butcher, 
who  was  a  Jew ;  it  was  there  inspected  and  passed,  put  on  the  cars 
with  others,  and  taken  to  the  town,  the  name  of  which  I  have  forgot- 
ten. The  other  cattle  were  at  once  killed  ;  but  the  butcher  having  a 
child  suddenly  die,  the  remaining  cow  was  sent  to  a  friend  for  a  day 
or  two,  for  him  to  keep,  and  during  the  interval  the  disease  liad  time 
to  develop.  Professor  Dieckerhoff  traced  the  whole  affair  from 
beginning  to  end  ;  the  cow  was  killed,  and  rinderpest  proved  to  be 
present.  If  this  cow  had  been  killed  with  the  others,  the  disease 
might  have  been  spread  without  the  real  cause  ever  becoming  ap- 
parent, or  brought  to  light.  I  have  purposely  refrained  from  saying 
anything  about  the  action  of  the  authorities  in  these  special  cases ; 
in  the  investigation  of  some  othera  it  Avas  my  good  fortune  to  be 
present.  Early  one  morning  about  two  weeks  since,  Professor 
Dieckerhoff  sent  for  me ;  it  was  just  daylight,  and,  witli  him  and 
four  other  students,  we  started  for  a  village,  about  thirteen  miles 
from  Berlin,  where  a  cow  was  reported  to  be  sick.  I  should  state 
that  the  Government  keeps  a  very  nice  "  turn-out"  and  four  horses 
for  this  purpose,  and  Professor  DieckerhofF  has  this  clinic  (at  pres- 
ent he  has  charge  of  the  school  hospitals) — taking  four  students  each 
time  with  him,  your  humble  servant  going  when  anything  interest- 
ing is  likely  to  turn  up.  "We  arrived  in  about  two  hours,  the  roads 
being  heavy ;  we  met  the  local  officers  and  proceeded  to  the  sus- 
pected farm-house,  but  did  not  enter  until  we  had  proved  our  right 
to  do  so ;  the  house  being  guarded,  and  not  a  person  allowed  to 
leave  or  enter  the  premises,  but  to  speak  or  pass  things  in  or  out 
through  a  window.     I  omitted  to  state  that  Professor  Dieckerhoff 


248  THE   HISTORY   OF  VETERINARY   MEDICINE. 

and  the  renowned  Hertwig  had  been  there  the  previous  day,  and  it 
had  been  decided  to  allow  another  to  pass,  in  order  that  the  symp- 
toms should  become  sufficiently  developed  to  prove  the  existence 
of  the  disease,  the  place  being  well  guarded.  During  the  night  a 
trench  had  been  dug  some  forty  feet  long  and  some  fourteen  deep 
in  an  entirely  isolated  wood,  which  we  could  reach  without  crossing 
a  public  way.  We  removed  the  cow,  made  a  necroscopical  exami- 
nation, proved  our  case  ;  her  nine  companions  were  brought  after  her 
to  the  same  place,  with  their  chains  and  stable-utensils :  the  cows 
were  then  shot,  after  the  decision  of  the  proper  officers  had  been 
given,  and  they  with  the  utensils  were  at  once  buried — a  military 
guard  over  the  place,  another  about  the  farm  from  which  they  were 
taken,  and  also  on  the  streets  leading  to  the  village ;  the  inmates  of 
this  particular  place  being  confined  strictly  to  their  own  limits  for  a 
time  prescribed  by  law.  JSTo  cattle  or  farm  animals  were  allowed  in 
the  streets,  and  only  persons  permitted  there  with  teams  who  had 
received  sanction  from  the  authorities.  All  those  who  had  had  to 
do  with  the  infected  cattle  were  most  effectually  disinfected ;  while 
those  that  buried  them  had  no  cattle  themselves,  and  were  not  al- 
lowed to  go  near  any  within  the  lawful  time.  I  heard  an  officer  say 
that  the  pastor  of  the  village  must  be  carefully  watched  :  that  these 
gentry  were  unfortunately  apt  to  be  spreaders  of  contagium,  the 
guards  of ter  allowing  them  to  pass  as  favored  persons,  and  then  they 
innocently,  of  course,  must  go  to  the  stable,  see  things,  and  after- 
ward go  to  another  neighbor  to  mention  the  loss  of  neighbor  So- 
and-so.  This  has  often  been  the  case,  I  am  told,  in  Germany.  The 
manure,  the  stall,  and  all  things  about  the  stable,  are  carefully  cleansed 
and  disinfected  under  the  supervision  of  veterinary  officials.  I  was 
surprised  to  see  numerous  military  about  the  fields  and  streets,  ap- 
parently with  no  purpose,  yet  carrying  rifles ;  their  duty,  it  seems, 
was  to  shoot  every  dog,  cat,  or  valiant  chanticleer,  which  they  might 
see  straying  abroad  or  leaving  the  proper  quarters.  Doubtless  the 
Prussian  course  may  seem  tyrannical  and  severe — all  the  cattle  are 
killed,  not  only  the  diseased,  but  all  belonging  to  the  infested  farm 
or  stable — but  the  law  is,  to  my  mind,  essentially  democratic ;  it  is 
for  the  good  of  the  whole,  and  the  cattle  killed  and  utensils  de- 
stroyed are  paid  for  by  the  state  at  market  prices. 

The  remarks  of  TIaller  upon  certain  contagious  animal  diseases, 
rnore  especially  the  pleuro-pneumonia  of  cattle,  which  is  of  such 
vital  interest  to  the  people  of  this  country  at  present,  and  which 
bids  fair  to  become  a  most  serious  economical  problem  to  American 
statesmen,  certainly  more  than  warrants  their  introduction  here.     It 


TUE   HISTORY    OF   VETEIUXARY    MEDICINE.  049 

is  not,  liowever,  iiia])propriate  to  the  siil)jec't  of  this  book  to  gwo  a 
short  sketch  of  the  life  of  a  man  uho  has  wiekled  such  a  mighty 
intellectnal  iutiuence  in  the  world's  progress. 

''  Albert  von  Ilaller  *  was  born  at  Bern,  Switzerland,  in  1708,  and 
in  early  youth  demonstrated  a  systematic  spirit  and  a  strong  scien- 
tific tendency.  lie  began  to  make  for  himself  a  private  dictionary 
as  soon  as  he  was  able  to  write,  in  which  he  entered  all  words  hith- 
erto unknown  to  him,  with  their  meanings,  lie  also  made  a  dic- 
tionary of  a  similar  character  as  soon  as  he  began  the  study  of  for- 
eign languages,  and  when  he  began  the  study  of  history  he  followed 
the  same  course.  He  often  said  that  in  his  later  years  he  found 
valuable  information  in  these  works  of  his  youthful  days.  AVhen 
ten  years  old  he  had  already  shown  his  taste  for  poetry  by  writing 
ludicrous  verses  about  his  teachei's,  his  poetic  talent  at  this  time 
having  a  special  bent  to  satire,  which  he,  however,  entirely  gave  up 
in  later  years.  In  l~'2'-\  when  he  was  fifteen  years  old,  he  went  to 
the  Univei*sity  of  Tubingen,  to  study  medicine  under  Duvernoi  and 
Camerarius.  In  the  ne.xt  year  he  wrote  a  polemic  against  an  ana- 
tomical assertion  of  Professor  Coshwitz  at  Ilalle.  He  did  not  re- 
main long  at  Tubingen,  ;is  he,  with  other  students,  had  made  a 
shepherd  so  drunk  with  high-wine  (Branntwein)  that  the  latter  lost 
his  life.  In  172.')  he  removed  to  Lcyden,  to  study  under  the  guid- 
ance of  the  immortal  Boerhaave.  At  eighteen  years  of  age  he  ac- 
quired his  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine,  visited  England  and  France, 
but  had  to  flee  from  Paris,  because  it  was  found  that  he  had  made 
dissections  of  human  bodies  at  his  residence.  From  Paris  he  went 
to  Basel  and  studied  mathematics  under  Bernoulli ;  but  in  1729  he 
returned  to  the  place  of  his  nativity,  Bern,  in  order  to  practice  his 
profession ;  at  the  same  time  he  studied  botany  with  great  earnest- 
ness. In  1734  he  became  director  of  the  hospitals  of  his  city,  and 
also  had  an  amphitlieatre  built  in  which  he  gave  anatomical  lectures. 
Most  of  his  poems  were  written  at  this  time.  In  1735  he  had  con- 
trol of  the  City  Library,  which  he  himself  used  with  the  greatest 
diligence.  In  1730  he  was  called  to  Gottingen  as  Professor  of  Anat- 
omy, Chemistry,  and  Botany  ;  he  also  explained  the  '  Institutions '  of 
his  master,  Boerhaave,  which  he  himself  })ublished  with  commentaries 
in  1730.  At  this  period  he  still  busied  himself  with  botany,  and  pub- 
lished several  works  of  classical  importance  upon  the  subject ;  he 
also  wrote  a  large  number  of  important  anatomiciil  papers,  besides 
publishing  an  atlas  of  anatomy.  But  it  is  for  his  contributions  to 
physiology  that  Ilaller  is  as  much  noted  as  for  any  other  of  his  mani- 
*  "Geschichte  d.  Mcdicin,"  Wundcrlich,  Stuttgart,  1859, 


250  THE   HISTORY   OF  VETERINARY   MEDICINE. 

fold  accomplishments.  His  Urst  appearance  in  this  branch  of  sci- 
ence was  a  polemical  work  on  respiration  in  1727.  He  demonstrated 
that  there  was  no  air  between  the  pleura  costalis  and  lungs,  against 
the  contrary  assertions  of  Professor  Hamberger.  Haller's  fame, 
and  with  it  that  of  the  Gottingen  University,  increased  each  year ; 
he  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Gottingen  Scientific  Society,  and  a 
periodical,  which  is  still  in  existence,  devoted  to  science.  After  sev- 
enteen years  of  unceasing  activity  his  health  broke  down,  and  he 
was  obliged  to  return  to  Bern  in  1753,  where  he  took  an  active  in- 
terest and  part  in  the  government,  and  published  numerous  works 
upon  botany,  anatomy,  surgery,  the  practice  of  medicine — all  of 
them  of  classical  importance.  During  the  last  years  of  his  life  he 
scarcely  left  his  library — sleeping,  eating,  working,  and  receiving 
his  friends  and  visitors  there.  His  wife,  children,  pupils,  and 
friends  were  all  kept  busy  aiding  this  wonderfully  gifted  man  in  his 
work ;  only  in  this  way  was  it  possible  for  a  human  being  to  give 
to  the  world  the  almost  incredible  amount  of  literary  work  which 
he  did.  Haller  died,  beloved  and  respected  of  all,  at  the  place  of 
his  birth,  on  the  12th  of  December,  1777."  In  1877  his  native 
city  fitly  celebrated  the  one  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  death 
of  this  her  greatest  son,  whose  name  and  fame  will  be  held  immortal 
so  long  as  memory  lasts  and  mankind  continues  to  reverence  the 
noblest  among  the  children  of  the  world,  who,  though  dead  in  form, 
still  live  that  immortality  which  is  given  but  to  the  selected  few. 

I  have  previously  mentioned  that  among  the  most  important  con- 
tributions to  veterinary  literature  in  the  eighteenth  century  was  a 
writing  by  Haller  upon  an  epizootic  disease  of  the  cattle  of  Switzer- 
land, an  edition  of  which  appeared  at  Bern  in  1773,  entitled  "  Me- 
moire  sur  la  Contagion  parmi  le  Betail." 

"  In  this  year  (174:5)  *  the  immortal  Haller  published  his  inves- 
tigations into  the  nature  of  an  epizootic  which  had  several  times 
been  observed  in  Switzerland.  The  great  physician  supposed  it 
was  the  '  cattle-plague,'  but  no  one  can  read  his  description  of  this 
Swiss  malady  without  surmising  that  it  was  a  different  disease,  in 
all  probability  the  bovine  contagious  pleuro-pneumonia.  Such  an 
authority  needs  no  apology  for  being  quoted  here,  especially  as  his 
preventive  measures  are  worthy  of  notice,  and  would  probably  have 
saved  this  country  a  great  loss  had  they  been  adopted  in  recent 
years : 

"  1.  The  first  thing  necessary  is  to  determine  the  nature  of  the 
disease.     This  knowledge  is  not  easily  acquired,  for  frequently  it 

*  Fleming,  loc.  cit.,  p.  446. 


THE    UlL>TORY    OF   VETEItlNARY    MEDICINE.  "51 

does  not  niaiiifest  itself  by  any  perceptible  pymptotiis  for  a  lon<i; 
time.  Tbe  veritable  cause  of  death  is  the  work  of  nothiui;  but  cor- 
niption,  which  often  infects  the  intestines — corruption,  which  is  the 
consequence,  not  the  cause,  of  the  disease.  The  ravages  wliicli  this 
disease  caused  among  the  cattle  of  the  most  enlightened  nations, 
before  they  knew  its  terrible  character  or  the  means  to  prevent  its 
progress,  are  without  doubt  to  be  attributed  to  the  great  difficulty 
which  is  fre(piently  met  with  in  correctly  recognizing  it.  In  a  gen- 
eral way,  it  is  described  as  manifesting  itself  by  a  violent  fever,  sliiv- 
erings,  staring  coat,  by  loss  of  rumination  ;  but  all  these  symj)toms 
do  not  appear  until  the  malady  has  already  made  deadly  advances  in 
the  interior  of  the  animal.  We  are  told  that,  for  a  certainty,  a  beast 
taken  out  of  an  infected  stable  and  transported  to  a  perfectly  healthy 
atmosphere  does  not  become  sick  until  a  month  after  it  has  been  re- 
moved from  the  diseased  locality,  and  that  it  perishes  from  the  veri- 
table contagion  which,  without  doubt,  had  been  concealed  during 
the  whole  of  this  month  in  the  body  of  the  animal.  It  is  also  a  fact 
that  the  diseased  cattle  jump  about  for  some  weeks  with  vivacity ; 
that  they  give  their  usual  quantity  of  milk  ;  that  they  cat  their  for- 
age with  avidity  ;  that  they  work  in  harness,  and  yet  that  they  carry 
death  in  their  intestines.  The  only  indication  of  pneumonia  {pul- 
monie)  wliicli  is  to  be  noticed  from  the  commencement  is  a  slight 
cough,  which  affects  the  animal,  notwithstanding  every  apparent  in- 
dication of  good  health.  It  is  not  for  some  days  or  weeks  after  the 
animal  has  become  infected  that  the  disease  shows  itself  by  fever 
and  horripilation.  The  cough  now  augments,  the  animal  moans,  its 
strength  diminishes,  it  can  not  stand,  and  lies  down  very  often ;  it 
has  a  difficulty  in  breathing ;  the  pulse  is  frequent ;  the  fever  be- 
comes intcnsilied.  It  is  now  that  the  appetite  and  rumination  cease. 
The  disease  prevails  for  some  days,  the  fever  increasing  daily ;  the 
veins  (?)  beat  with  a  force  and  quickness  which  is  astonishing;  a  vis- 
cid froth  escapes  from  the  mouth  and  nostrils ;  the  tongue  is  hot, 
the  breath  heavy  and  labored,  and  its  odor  insupportable  ;  the  eyes 
are  withdrawn  in  their  orbits,  the  horns  cold  ;  a  diarrhoea  of  a  bad 
odor,  sometimes  tinged  with  blood,  and  a  thorough  total  sinking 
terminate  the  beast's  days.  Diarrha?a  does  not  always  take  place." 
"  2,  AVhcn  we  open  the  cattle  after  death  we  find  the  lungs  con- 
stantly and  infallibly  affected.  AVe  might  know  this  from  the  cough 
and  the  difficulty  of  breathing  which  precede  death.  In  all  the 
contagions  which  have  reigned  at  Sulcus,  Grandson,  Trassy,  and 
elsewhere,  the  lungs  have  always  been  inflamed  and  attached  to  the 
pleura,  and  abscesses  often  form  between  the  lungs  and  this  mem- 


252  THE   HISTORY   OF   VETERINARY   MEDICINE. 

brane.  I  find  the  same  observations  in  the  best  authorities  who 
have  written  upon  the  contagion,  and  particularly  in  the  writings  of 
M.  Bourgelat,  who  has  made  the  treatment  of  these  animals  a  par- 
ticular studv.  In  many  cows  the  lungs  are  found  gangrenous ;  in 
others,  they  are  filled  with  abscesses ;  and  in  others,  again,  there  are 
vesicles  filled  with  water,  mixed  sometimes  with  pus ;  it  is  more 
rare  to  find  tartarized  or  cretaceous  matters.  There  are  constantly 
inflammation  and  gangrene  of  the  pleura,  and  we  have  never  yet 
killed  infected  animals  and  found  the  lungs  in  a  perfect  state.  The 
cough  being  the  first  symptom  of  this  disease,  it  is  present  in  every 
animal  affected.  The  lungs  being  constantly  diseased,  it  is  evident 
that  the  disease  of  these  organs  is  the  essence  of  the  contagion,  and 
that  it  is  with  perfect  justice  that  the  people  of  France  and  Ger- 
many term  it  pneumonia.  The  alterations  in  the  other  viscera  are 
not  so  essential  as  those  in  the  lungs.  It  is  common,  nevertheless, 
to  find  the  stomach  inflamed  and  gorged  with  food.  It  is  scarcely 
altered  when  the  animals  are  killed  shortly  after  the  commencement 
of  the  disease ;  but,  when  they  have  been  slaughtered  at  the  last 
stages,  or  when  they  have  died,  the  first  compartment  is  inflamed, 
the  food  is  found  but  little  affected  by  digestion,  or  it  may  be  rot- 
ten. The  second  compartment  is  equally  inflamed,  and  filled  with 
forage  which  is  undigested.  The  third  compartment  suffers  the 
most,  and  is  often  found  inflamed  and  gangrenous,  the  food  in  it 
being  extremely  compact  and  dry,  and  sometimes  rotten  (pourri). 
The  fourth  or  true  stomach  is  frequently  inflamed  and  gangrenous, 
but  the  food  is  not  hardened. 

"  From  the  first  days  of  the  malady  the  beast  has  eaten  and  ru- 
minated ;  and,  as  it  would  not  be  able  to  maintain  either  of  these 
functions  if  the  stomach  had  become  inflamed,  it  is  very  evident 
that  the  disturbance  of  the  stomach  is  a  consequence  of  the  fever, 
and  the  putridity  of  the  juices  of  the  beast,  and  that  it  is  not  the 
cause  of  the  disease.  The  animal  has  been  infected  and  the  stomach 
maintained  its  health  for  a  number  of  days,  and  it  is  only  by  a  cor- 
ruption of  the  humors  that  it  is  found  vitiated. 

"  3.  The  time  nature  of  a  disease  is  known  by  the  accidents  which 
accompany  it  in  its  duration,  and  by  the  changes  which  we  observe 
on  the  autopsy  of  the  animal,  when  compared  with  the  organs  in 
health.  But  the  essential  features  of  the  disease  ought  to  consist  in 
the  symptoms  which  are  manifested  from  the  beginning,  and  which 
have  continued  during  life,  and  in  the  marks  of  corruption  in  the 
interior,  which  are  the  actual  causes  of  these  symptoms.  It  requires 
care  not  to  be  deceived  by  these  accidents,  which  are  a  consequence 


THE   HISTORY   OF   VETERINARY   SIEDICIXE.  053 

of  the  corniption  of  the  hutnors,  aiul  are  only  most  a])part'nt  in  the 
latter  sta«res  of  the  disease.  It  is  bi'licvcd  that  the  contafrioii  anionir 
cattle  is  uii  inflanimatory  fever,  a  inali<^naut  fever — a  fever  accom- 
panied by  an  eruption  of  the  skin — as  well  as  an  inflammation  of  the 
stomach.  It  is  evident  that  it  is  a  disease  of  tlie  lun«rs,  which  com- 
mences  by  an  inflammation,  running  often  into  gangrene  ;  at  other 
times  into  abscesses,  and  which  terminates  in  phthisis.  It  is  very 
astonishing  that  among  the  number  of  modern  doctors  who  have 
written  on  a  contagion  existing  for  so  many  years,  scarcely  one  has 
observed  that  the  seat  of  the  disease  exists  in  the  lungs,  or  even  that 
these  were  attacked. 

"  4.  The  doctoi-s  have  established  their  remedial  measures  to  cure 
tin's  disease  on  the  notion  that  they  knew  its  nature.  Those  who 
look  npon  it  as  an  intlammatory  fever  recommend  bleeding,  and 
remedies  of  a  soothing  and  cooling  kind  ;  those  who  admit  a  corrup- 
tion of  the  blood  have  ordered  febrifuge  and  stimulating  remedies ; 
and  those  who  consider  it  a  putrid  fever  counsel  tlie  administration 
of  acids ;  and,  in  Brandenburg,  wild  apples  have  been  recommended 
as  a  specific.  Others,  again,  liave  proposed  quinine,  and  others  mer- 
cury, while  the  people  have  had  recourse  in  general  to  incongruous 
compositions,  and  to  old-fashioned  recipes.  The  ancients  looked 
mueli  to  setons  passed  through  the  skin,  in  order  to  establish  a  long- 
continued  suppuration.  But  it  has  been  discovered,  by  sad  expe- 
rience, in  Holland  and  England,  that  these  remedies  ai-e  impotent ; 
all  hope  of  curing  this  disease  has  been  lost,  and  people  are  content 
to  mitigate  it  by  inoculation.  We  pass  in  silence  the ])retendt'd prc- 
aervatives  hj  ichich  it  is  supposed  animals  are  insured  against  the 
cofita(/ion,  and  to  which  no  man  of  sense  icould  give  any  cimjidence^ 
seeing  that  they  are  useless  against  the  p>lague^  the  smallpox,  and 
other  contagious  diseases. 

"5.  A  long  experience  has  taught  us  tliat  remedies  are  useless 
against  the  contagion.  The  beginning  of  the  disease  is  nearly  im- 
perceptible, and  when  the  symptoms  arc  manifested  the  cure  has 
become  almost  impossible.  The  use  of  remedies  is  otherwise  dan- 
gerous, for  the  infection  is  really  communicated  by  the  breath  and 
exhalations.  We  have  a  proof  of  this  in  the  foul  smell  attached  to 
the  clothes  of  people  who  look  after  the  diseased  beasts.  "We  can 
not  hope  to  cure  in  a  day  a  disease  of  so  serious  a  character; 
and  thus  the  diseased  creature,  which  lives  in  the  same  stable  with 
other  cattle,  and  feeds  and  drinks  with  them,  may  infect  them 
during  the  time  we  are  unsuccessfully  attempting  to  cure  it.  These 
same  exhalations   may  also  lodge  in  the  clothes  of  those  who  go 


254  THE   HISTORY   OF  VETERINARY   MEDICINE. 

about  tliem,  and  thus  become  dangerous  to  the  animals  yet  in 
health. 

'•  We  can  not,  then,  hope  for  any  good  from  remedies.  For  more 
than  two  thousand  years  an  infinite  number  of  the  most  learned 
men  have  given  their  constant  attention  to  observing  the  effects  of 
medicines  on  mankind.  We  know  well  enough  the  value  of  sim- 
ples, the  properties  which  they  have  of  stimulating  or  evacuating, 
and  their  dose.  But  we  have  not  nearly  the  same  knowledge  to 
guide  us  when  we  deal  with  animals :  few  talented  persons  have 
observed  their  diseases  ;  the  art  of  curing  them  has  been  left  to  men 
of  low  condition,  who  have  no  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of  the 
lower  creatures,  and  who  have  not  informed  themselves  by  the  study 
of  nature  or  of  good  authors.  The  cattle-doctors  invariably  fol- 
low the  same  routine  traced  out  by  the  ancient  veterinarians,  and 
their  science  (art)  consists  of  divers  receipts  which  they  have  found 
among  the  papers  of  their  predecessors. 

"  The  structure  of  the  stomachs  of  cattle  is  very  different  from 
that  of  man;  in  general,  the  envelopes  of  their  nerves  are  much 
thicker,  the  sensations  less  active,  the  pulse  less  frequent,  the  arteries 
more  hard,  the  heart  less  irritable.  All  these  peculiarities  change 
the  effect  of  remedies  in  animals,  in  a  way  quite  different  to  man ; 
and  it  is  only  within  a  few  years  that  convincing  proof  has  been 
afforded  of  the  differences  between  the  effect  which  a  given  remedy 
has  on  man  and  the  animals.  The  saffron  of  metals  is  a  violent 
emetic  for  man ;  in  the  horse  it  only  increases  the  transpiration  ;  a 
dose  of  glass  of  antimony,  which  produces  violent  vomiting  in  man- 
kind, simply  purges  the  horse  ;  no  poison  will  make  a  horse  or  cow 
vomit.  Because  the  effects  of  medicines,  therefore,  on  the  lower 
animals  are  so  little  known  ;  because  scarcely  any  one  has  observed 
closely  enough  the  diseases  of  cattle,  or  given  definite  rules  for  the 
exhibition  of  the  proper  remedies  ;  because  the  use  of  remedies  can 
only  tend  to  spread  the  contagion — for  all  these  reasons  it  is  pru- 
dent to  abstain  from  a  dangerous  tentative  which  promises  but  lit- 
tle, and  which  may  have  the  worst  effects  ;  it  is  infinitely  preferable 
to  oppose  the  disease  by  means  which  are  more  certain  and  com- 
mendable. 

''  6.  We  hegin  ly  disabusing  the  pxiblic  of  the  idea  that  the  pneii- 
monia  {la pidmonie)  is  not  a  contagious  disease.  This  outrageous 
idea  even  comes  from  some  savants.  There  are  those,  too,  who  rob 
the  plague  of  its  contagious  power.  I  do  not  pretend  to  say  that  the 
skin  of  an  infected  beast  preserves  its  contagious  properties  for  a 
long  time  after  death  ;  experiments  upon  this  matter,  which  deserve 


THE   HISTORY    01"   VETEUIXAllV    MEDICINE.  255 

attention,  have  been  made  in  France.  It  is  necessary,  nevertheless, 
to  remember  that  the  j)hi<:jiie  attaches  itself  by  preference  to  the 
wool  and  the  hair  of  animals,  that  it  may  be  transported  b}'  these 
materials,  ami  that  they  will  spread  the  contagion  to  other  towns 
and  countries  free  from  the  contagion.  It  is,  then,  possible  that 
the  poisonous  exhalations  of  the  diseased  beast  attach  themselves  to 
the  hairs  of  animals  which  go  near  it.  It  is  at  least  certain,  in  our 
country,  that  as  often  as  the  disease  is  manifested  among  cattle,  and 
when  it  has  been  traced  to  its  source,  it  has  been  found  that  a  beast 
which  has  been  purchased  in  the  market  of  some  suspected  place,  or 
which  had  been  brought  from  some  suspected  locality,  has  carried 
the  contagion  with  it  to  a  new  center.  Sometimes,  also,  the  cattle 
of  our  regions  have  been  pastured  with  those  of  a  neighboring  in- 
fected country.  It  is  very  probable  that  at  other  times  the  air  of 
the  infected  mountains  has  spread  the  dangerous  exhalations  over 
the  country.  We  believe  that  we  have  ol)served  that  healthy  cattle 
which  had  smelled  of  those  that  were  diseased  have  shown,  a  few 
hours  after,  traces  of  the  contagion.  It  is  known  that  the  ship  from 
Sidon  brought  the  plague  to  Marseilles,  and  that  the  bull  which  was 
taken  from  Hungary  to  Padua,  in  1711,  took  with  it  the  fearfid  con- 
tagion which  first  ravaged  Italy,  and  then  nearly  the  half  of  Europe. 
It  thus  appears  that  the  plague  of  man  and  the  cattle-phiguc  take 
their  origin  in  hot  countries,  that  they  can  infect  temperate  regions, 
and  that  they  are  gradually  destroyed  during  the  cold  of  some  rig- 
orous winter.  That  which  is  yet  a  better  proof  that  the  pneumonia 
is  perpetuated  by  infection,  as  the  plague  is,  is  the  manner  in  which 
we  can  confine  it  in  suspected  places,  and  by  cutting  off  all  commu- 
nication between  the  stables  which  are  infected  and  those  which  are 
not.  If  this  malady  were  generated  spontaneously,  like  the  ordinary 
fevers  of  man,  we  would  in  vain  barricade  stables,  in  vain  would  we 
slaughter  the  cattle  of  a  village,  and  it  Avould  be  useless  to  isolate 
the  mountains  by  barriers  and  guards.  All  the>e  ])recantions  would 
not  keep  away  a  disease  which  has  its  origin  in  the  blood  itself  of 
the  healthiest  cattle.  .  .  .  The  contagion,  however,  does  not  s])rcad 
very  far,  and  it  does  not  infect  a  column  of  air  for  any  great  distance. 
If  the  air  were  infected,  if  it  w;ls  able  to  carry  afar  the  poison  of 
the  disease,  the  barriers  and  other  jirecautionary  measures  of  man 
would  be  unavailing.  In  this  there  is  the  greatest  resemblance  be- 
tween the  disease  of  cattle  and  the  plague  of  man.  The  monks  and 
nuns  of  Marseilles  were  saved  because  they  kept  their  convents 
closed.  The  air  was  not,  then,  the  cause  of  the  disease,  else  the  clos- 
ing of  the  convents  would  not  have  prevented  the  pestilence  from 


256  THE   HISTORY   OF  VETERINARY   MEDICINE. 

entering.  The  police  have  often  confined  this  disease  of  cattle  to  a 
stable,  or  a  small  number  of  stables,  and  so  prevented  others  being 
attacked. 

"  It  follows  from  all  this  that,  on  the  one  side,  the  disease  arises 
from  infection,  and,  on  the  other,  that  there  are  no  hopes  of  a  cure. 
There  only  remain,  then,  those  resources  which  we  may  employ  to 
prevent  infection,  and  for  confining  to  the  smallest  possible  limit 
the  loss  which  might  happen  when  animals  are  first  attacked  by  this 
poison.  These  efforts  should  be  directed  to  prevent  the  infection 
being  communicated  from  foreign  countries  to  ours  ;  or,  if  it  should 
have  penetrated,  then  to  stop  its  extension  from  diseased  to  healthy 
cattle.  Above  all,  then,  we  should  hinder  the  entrance  of  cattle 
from  a  country  where  the  pneumonia  nearly  always  reigns,  some- 
times in  one  district,  sometimes  in  another,  and  these  precautions 
ought  to  remain  in  force  at  all  times,  and  be  jjerpetual  in  regard  to 
those  countries  where  the  police  is  not  strict,  and  from  which  the 
disease  might  be  carried  to  ours.  The  danger  will  alioays  he  great 
if  the  trade  in  cattle  is  carried  on  without  inspection.  This  precau- 
tion is  all  the  more  necessary  against  the  countries  whose  rulers 
care  little  for  the  welfare  of  the  people,  and  in  which  the  people 
have  no  confidence  in  the  administration.  The  poor  people  of  a 
country,  despairing  of  being  aided  by  the  Government,  conceal  with 
extreme  care  the  existence  of  the  contagion ;  to  evade  more  onerous 
consequences,  they  even  inter  their  cattle  in  the  stables ;  and  it 
is  very  natural  that  they  should  endeavor  to  sell  at  modest  prices 
beasts  the  keeping  of  which  would  only  cause  the  extension  of  the 
disease  among  other  cattle.  In  the  countries  where  the  ruler  has 
a  paternal  feeling  for  his  subjects,  where  he  is  always  disposed  to 
soften  their  losses,  where  he  generously  takes  into  account  the  ex- 
penses necessarily  attending  precautions,  and  where  he  gains  the 
confidence  of  the  people,  the  inhabitants  at  once  denounce  the 
disease,  submit  to  the  necessary  restrictions,  and  rely  on  the  wis- 
dom of  their  king  for  their  preservation  and  the  amelioration  of 
their  hardships.  A  wise  government  ought  to  prevent  the  contagion, 
and  not  wait  U7itil  it  has  invaded  the  country,  hut  check  it  at 
its  frontiers,  where  it  is  easy  to  do  so.  The  police  ought,  then, 
even  in  times  of  the  greatest  security,  to  taJce  care  that  no  animal 
shall  hecome  diseased  without  responsible  j^^ople  heing  informed. 
Even  in  ordinary  times  every  animal  purchased  or  sold  ought  to  he 
vouched  for,  and  should  he  marked  on  the  horn  with  a  particular 
stamp  for  each  village,  which  mark  should  he  renewed  whenever  it 
hecomes  effaced  ;  so  that  hy  this  proof  we  may  know  what  village 


THE   HISTORY    OF   VETERINARY    MEDICINE.  257 

it  comes  f/'o/n,  and  assure  oursehrs  of  tlve  health  of  that  village. 
For  the  same  reason  no  cattle  should  be  admitted  to  fairs  or  markets^ 
sold  or  exchamjed,  without  a  voucher  being  given  of  perfect  healthy 
impressed  and  signed  by  the  authorities,  testifying  to  the  health  of 
the  animal  and  that  of  the  place  whence  it  came.  For  this  purpose 
inspectors  are  necessary.  They  should  destroy  cattle  which  are 
brought  icithout  attestation  and  give  the  fe.sh  to  the  p>oor ;  there 
are  but  few  cases  where  less  rigorous  measures  are  needed. 

"  8.  Notwithstanding  all  these  precautions,  the  extent  of  the 
frontiers,  the  want  of  care  on  the  part  of  nei^i^hboring  nations,  the 
exhalations  from  the  infected  mountains  where  the  disease  is  rag- 
ing, the  greed  of  gain,  and  the  desire  to  purchase  at  a  low  price,  as 
well  as  the  other  failings  of  a  police  so  difficult  to  enforce  in  Inunan 
society,  are  all  causes  which  may  aid  the  contagion  in  insinuating 
itself  into  some  village  or  on  some  mountain.  In  this  unfortunate 
case  it  only  rests  with  us  to  smother  the  flame  in  its  first  commence- 
ment, and  to  i)revent  its  extension.  Every  j)erson  who  may  have 
any  knowledge  of  the  disease,  or  even  any  s^ispicion  of  its  existence 
among  cattle,  should  be  held  liable  to  a  penalty  if  the  nearest  magis- 
trate is  not  at  once  informed ,'  also,  ichen  a  non-suspected  beast  be- 
comes diseased  or  dies,  the  proprietor  or  other  instructed  person 
should  gin'  information,  and  the  p7'op>er  authorities  should  then  pass 
on  the  tidings.  Whoever  conceals  any  suspected  case  should  be  se- 
verely punished.  Every  precaution  should  then  be  taken  to  extin- 
guish the  disease. 

"  9.  The  first  of  these  precautions  is  the  prompt  separation  of 
the  diseased  beast  from  healthy  ones.  So  long  as  it  is  suspected,  it 
ought  neither  to  be  allowed  to  drink,  feed,  pasture,  nor  dwell  with 
the  healthy.  It  should  be  kept  in  a  separate  stable,  or  in  an  in- 
closed paddock,  and  those  who  attend  it  should  wear  clothes  appro- 
priate to  the  purpose,  never  even  approaching  healthy  animals. 
The  trough  out  of  which  this  animal  drinks  ought  not  to  be  used  for 
healthy  ones,  the  dung  should  not  be  spread  on  the  ground  or  carried 
away,  but  should  be  buried  in  deep  pits  and  well  covered  with 
earth,  and  these  places  should  be  surrounded  with  pahngs,  so  that 
no  healthy  beast  may  be  able  to  smell  it. 

"  When  the  infected  animal  has  been  killed,  or  when  it  has  died, 
it  is  necessary  to  aerate  the  stable  for  three  months  at  least,  and  to 
remove  and  bum  the  thatch,  and  all  the  wooden  movable  articles ; 
to  dig  up  the  ground  to  the  depth  of  a  foot,  and  rei)lacc  it  with 
other  earth,  and  cover  the  whole  with  lime.  The  healthy  should 
not  go  near  the  forage  which  the  diseased  may  have  been  eating, 
17 


258  THE  HISTORY  OF  VETERINARY  MEDICINE. 

and  whicli  might  be  infected  by  its  breath,  though  it  may  be  given 
to  horses.  Every  animal  dying  of  the  disease  should  be  opened  in 
the  presence  of  proper  persons  skilled  in  the  veterinary  art,  and  a 
report  of  the  ])ost-mortein  appearance  should  be  made.  If  the  dis- 
ease is  made  out  to  be  a  non-contagious  one,  the  owner  may  be  per- 
mitted to  use  the  flesh  and  remove  the  skin.  But  if  there  is  found 
the  slightest  cause  for  suspicion  in  the  lungs,  the  skin  ought  to  be 
cut  crosswise,  and  buried  in  a  grave  six  feet  deep,  which  should  be 
filled  with  lime.  Palisades  should  be  fixed  around  it,  so  that  no 
animal  may  come  near  it.  If  the  disease  is  really  a  pneumonia,  it  is 
preferable  not  to  doctor  it,  but  to  kill  without  delay  the  first  ani- 
mals which,  from  their  cough,  would  lead  one  to  suspect  the  dis- 
ease, or  those  which  have  been  in  the  same  stable  with  the  sick  ; 
because  we  may  set  down  as  lost,  without  exception,  every  animal 
which  has  been  in  a  house  with  a  pulmonic  beast.  Experience  has 
only  too  often  demonstrated  that  they  take  the  disease  one  after  the 
other,  and  all  die. 

•'  10.  When  many  stables  are  infected  in  the  same  village,  the 
danger  is  yet  greater,  and  it  is  here  that  it  is  necessary  to  redouble 
our  efforts  to  prevent  the  extension  of  the  contagion.  All  the  in- 
fected stables  should  be  carefully  closed  and  excluded  from  all 
communication  with  the  watering-places  and  pasturage ;  in  seri- 
ous cases,  to  make  more  certain,  we  should  kill  all  animals  which 
have  been  in  the  infected  places,  no  less  those  in  apparent  health 
than  those  in  which  the  disease  is  manifest.  We  are  driven  to 
this  severe  course  because  we  can  never  be  assured  that  those  ani- 
mals which  have  come  out  of  the  suspicious  places  have  escaped  the 
contagion.  This  apparent  cruelty  is  the  only  means  to  be  employed 
for  preventing  the  contagion  from  penetrating  into  other  stables  and 
into  neighboring  villages,  and  from  spreading  over  the  whole  country. 

"  The  case  is  yet  more  dangerous  when  the  contagion  manifests 
itself  on  a  mountain  where  a  certain  number  of  cattle  find  their 
subsistence  during  the  winter.  It  has  happened  that  the  cattle  of 
the  plains  have  remained  in  health,  but  those  on  the  neighboring 
mountains  have  been  infected,  and  thus  the  herds  of  the  republic 
have  been  encircled  by  contagion.  In  these  unhappy  circumstances 
it  should  be  recommended  that  the  mountain-passes  be  closed,  and 
all  communication  cut  off  from  the  infected  pasturage.  Inspectors 
ought  to  make  a  visit  every  fifteen  days  to  the  mountains,  where 
cattle  belonging  to  the  subjects  of  the  state  are  kept,  in  order  to 
examine  with  great  care  if  any  beasts  are  in  a  suspicious  condition, 
or  if,  without  exception,  they  are  healthy. 


THE  niSTORY   OF  VETERINARY  MEDICINE.  259 

"  In  those  instances  wliere  the  infected  mountains  of  our  neigh- 
bors abut  too  closely  on  our  own,  these  last  should  be  most  strictly 
guarded,  and  it  should  not  be  for  less  than  a  year  after  the  disease 
has  disappeared  that  any  communication  should  be  allowed ;  as  ex- 
perience lias  amply  demonstrated  that  cattle  not  suspected  of  the 
disease  have  been  attacked  by  the  contagion  by  grazing  on  mount- 
ains in  the  neiiirhborhood  of  those  infected.  Sometimes  we  are 
obliged  to  exercise  a  greater  degree  of  severity  by  destroying  the 
hogs  which,  according  to  custom  on  the  mountains,  feed  with  the 
cattle.  The  contagion  which  destroys  the  cattle  does  not  affect 
either  pigs,  sheep,  or  horses;  but  it  is  always  to  l)c  apprehended 
that  these  may  carry  some  of  the  contagion  or  their  infected  breath 
to  these  animals,  and  may  thus  spread  the  disease. 

"  It  is  only  by  these  precautions,  which  should  be  constantly  in 
force,  that  it  is  possible  to  contine  the  contagion  to  a  village  or 
mountain,  and  to  keep  the  country  free  from  infection." 

That  these  explicit  instructions  of  the  great  Ilallcr  have  not  been 
without  their  })roper  appreciation,  may  be  seen  from  the  following: 

Professor  Putz  *  (of  the  Veterinary  Institute  at  Bern)  says : 
''  It  is  not  difficult  to  determine  what  regulations  are  indicated, 
from  a  truly  scientific  stand-point,  to  suppress  the  contagious  lung- 
plague  of  cattle.  In  order  to  effectually  eradicate  the  generation  of 
infectious  material,  the  sole  generator  of  tlie  pest,  there  is  no  more 
radical  method  than  the  complete  killing  out  of  the  infected  herd. 
A  view  of  the  questionable  conditions  in  Switzerland  Siitisfactorily 
demonstrates  how  advantageous  it  would  be  were  all  the  nations 
of  Europe  to  adopt  this  plan.  In  the  canton  of  Bern,  noted  for 
its  richness  in  cattle,  for  about  one  hundred  years  (since  Ilaller)  this 
scientific  procedure  has  been  successfully  carried  out,  and  it  has 
finally  become  universally  adopted  by  the  numerous  cantons  of  the 
Swiss  Republic.  The  law  (of  February  8,  1872)  for  the  suppres- 
sion of  contagious  animal  diseases,  especially  the  contagious  pleuro- 
pneumonia of  cattle,  says,  article  2i,  '  In  Switzerland  no  cattle  that 
have  been  diseased  with  the  contagious  lung-plague  (Ansteckenden 
Lungenseuche)  can  ever  again  be  allowed  to  become  an  article  of 
traffic'  "  In  M;issachusetts  the  same  course  was  adopted,  at  a  cost 
of  some  seventy-five  thousand  dollars  to  the  people  of  the  State,  but 
the  result  has  been,  that  while  the  disease  has  prevailed,  and  still 
prevails,  in  neighboring  States,  not  a  single  case  has  again  appeared 
in  Massiichusetts. 

*  "  Die  Lungenseuche,"  etc.,  by  Professor  Tutz,  "  Vortrage  fiir  Thierarzte,"     Scries  i, 
Heft  6,  V.  7. 


260  THE  HISTORY   OF  VETERINARY   MEDICINE. 

As  is  well  known,  England  has  been  repeatedly  invaded  by 
the  rinderpest,  which  has  caused  the  people  to  lose  millions  of 
pounds  in  valuable  cattle  ;  while  legislation  has  been  wofully  im- 
perfect in  this  regard,  owing  to  the  unfortunate  influence  exerted 
by  the  London  Yeterinary  School  in  times  past ;  still  Britain  has 
not  been  without  patriotic  and  excellent  advisers.  Among  the 
most  noteworthy  was  a  Mr.  Bates,  surgeon  to  George  I,  who  wrote 
in  1714,  but  his  advice  seems  to  have  fallen  upon  barren  ground 
in  later  years.  Bates  was  appointed  by  the  Government  to  study 
the  disease,  and  to  devise  means  for  its  prevention.  He  writes, 
after  examining  a  large  number  of  diseased  animals:  "We  then 
ordered  some  of  the  sick  cows  to  be  housed,  and  several  sorts  of 
cattle  to  be  kept  with  them,  to  see  whether  the  contagion  would 
affect  any  other  species.  The  next  day  I  made  a  verbal  report  to 
their  Excellencies  of  all  the  several  opinions  and  discourses  which 
I  have  had  about  it,  and  left  them  debating  what  method  to  take ; 
at  last  I  was  called  in,  and  ordered  to  consider  it  again  the  next 
day,  and  to  deliver  them  in  writing  what  would  be  proper  to  be 
done.  Accordingly,  I  drew  up  and  gave  them  the  following  pro- 
posals : 

"  1.  That  all  such  cows  as  are  now  in  possession  of  Messrs.  Rat- 
cliffe,  Rufford,  and  Pullen,  be  brought,  killed,  and  burned ;  or,  at 
least,  that  the  sick  be  burned,  and  the  well  kept  secured  on  the 
grounds  where  they  now  are,  that  such  of  them  that  sicken  and  die 
of  the  distemper  may  be  bunied. 

*'  2.  That  the  houses  in  which  the  sick  cows  have  stood  be  washed 
very  clean,  and  then  smoked  by  the  burning  of  pitch  and  wormwood, 
and  be  kept  empty  three  months,  at  least,  before  other  cows  be  put 
therein. 

"  3.  That  the  fields  where  the  sick  cows  have  grazed  be  kept 
two  months  before  any  other  cows  are  suffered  to  stand  or  graze 
upon  them. 

"  4.  That  persons  looking  after  such  that  are  ill  should  have  no 
communication  with  those  that  are  well. 

"  5.  That  the  same  methods  be  observed  if  any  other  of  the  cow- 
keepers  should  get  this  distemper  among  them  ;  and  that  they  all  be 
summoned,  and  told  that  as  soon  as  they  perceive  any  of  the  cows 
refuse  their  food,  or  have  any  other  symptoms  of  this  distemper, 
they  immediately  separate  them  from  the  others,  and  give  notice  to 
such  persons  as  your  Excellencies  shall  appoint,  that  they  may  be 
burned ;  and  the  places  where  they  have  stood  or  grazed  ordered 
as  before. 


THE   HISTORY   OF   VETKUINARY   MEDICINE.  261 

"  6.  That  the  cow-keejxTs  be  re<|iiired  to  divide  their  cows  into 
small  parcels,  not  more  than  ten  or  twelve  in  a  field  together;  and 
that  they  be  allowed  such  satisfaction  for  complying  with  these  pro- 
posals as  your  Excellencies  shall  think  fit."  * 

These  suggestions  were  accepted  and  acted  upon,  forty  shillings 
per  head  being  allowed  for  the  sick  cows  killed  by  the  authorities. 

''  Some  of  the  cow-keepers  a})peared  not  content  with  this  ar- 
rangement, and,  beUeving  that  the  disease  would  become  general, 
designed  to  have  their  cows  sold  at  some  distant  markety  which  the 
gentlemen  having  notice  of,  appointed  several  butchers  to  watch 
near  their  grounds,  and  count  their  numbers  every  morning,  with 
orders  to  follow  such  as  were  sent  to  market,  and  to  prevent  their 
being  sold  by  telling  the  people  what  they  were. 

"  Another  great  obstacle  at  fii-st  was  the  cow-keepers  not  admit- 
ting the  disease  until  they  had  lost  several  cows,  for,  as  soon  as  it 
was  known  that  any  man  had  but  one  sick,  no  one  would  buy  his 
milk,  and  to  those  who  kept  many  cows  the  loss  was  considerable. 

"  Nor  was  there  ever  wanting  one  or  other  who  gave  tJuim  hopes 
of  cure. 

"  It  was  endeavored  to  impress  upon  the  cow-keepers  that  they 
would  receive  remuneration  for  their  losses :  '  Tliis  had  a  pretty 
good  effect^  hut  here  in  Englaiul^  where  every  man  is  at  liberty  to 
dispose  of  his  cattle  a^  he  pleases^  nothing  hut  making  them  sensible 
that  it  loas  each  man^s  particular  interest  to  comply  lalth  these 
methods^  could  do.'' " 

The  entire  loss  by  this  invasion  was  estimated,  including  ex- 
penses, at  £31,174:  Is.  Id. 

In  1717,  Jolin  Morley,  of  London,  published  a  satirical  poem  of 
this  invasion,  which  may  not  be  without  interest : 

"As  soon  as  Britain  had  sustained 
That  fatal  loss  which  heaven  had  gained, 
And  parties  squabbled  to  a  maduess 
About  their  sorrows  and  their  gladness, 
A  plague  unprophesied  succeeded. 
That  only  reached  the  horny-headed, 
And  like  a  fatal  rot  or  murrain 
Turned  all  our  bulls  and  cows  to  carrion. 

"The  farriers  now  their  skill  employed, 
But  still  the  cows  in  number  died, 
And  with  their  horns  and  hides  together 
Were  burnt,  without  reserve  of  leather. 

*  "Animal  Plagues,"  p.  211. 


262  THE   HISTORY   OF  VETERINARY   MEDICINE. 

"Some  cunning  hucksters,  who  had  cows 
Old,  dry,  and  lean,  not  worth  a  souse. 
Though  sound  in  health,  but  scarce  deserving 
Of  pasture,  to  prevent  their  starving. 
They  wisely  knocked  'em  on  the  head 
By  night,  when  neighbors  were  in  bed. 
Next  day  assigned  their  extirpation 
To  this  new  fatal  visitation  : 
So  bore  'era  to  some  distant  pit 
Or  ditch,  for  such  a  purpose  fit ; 
There,  to  the  terror  of  the  isle. 
Consumed  'em  in  their  funeral  pile. 
Then  like  true  hypocrites,  put  on 
A  mournful  look,  as  if  undone, 
And  claimed  the  sum  of  forty  shilling 
For  every  cow  of  heaven's  killing — 
A  generous  bounty,  that  destroyed 
More  cattle  than  the  plague  annoyed." 


THE  establishme:n"t  of  the  vetee- 

INARY  SCHOOLS. 


There  is  no  doubt  tliat  many  of  tlie  nations  of  antiquity  had 
some  kind  of  hospitals  for  the  care  and  treatment  of  diseased  ani- 
mals. We  have  stated,  in  a  previous  part  of  this  work,  tliat  veteri- 
narians were  appointed  to  watch  over  the  health  of  the  animals  used 
at  the  circus  of  Rome,  but  in  this  regard  the  Oriental  nations  took 
a  high  rank  from  their  great  veneration  for  all  forms  of  animal  life. 
Wise  says :  *  "  The  peculiar  humanity  of  the  small  and  despised 
community  of  modern  Buddhists,  in  the  country  of  their  ancient 
greatness,  induced  them  to  keep  up  brute  hospitals — Pingra-Pol — 
which  are  still  to  be  found  in  ditferent  parts  of  llindostan.  Trevin- 
nier  informs  us  that  he  found  three  or  four  such  houses  in  Aman- 
dabab  in  1772  ;  and  Scavoneur  gives  an  account  of  the  Banian  hos- 
pital which  still  exists  at  Surat.f  "  This  curious  institution  is 
supported  by  one  anna  per  cent  on  the  rupee  of  the  merchants'  clear 
gain,  to  which  are  added  the  tines  for  certain  venial  offenses,  under 
the  supervision  of  the  chief  Banians.  In  1770,  when  trade  had  de- 
cayed, the  revenue  waa  upward  of  six  hundred  pounds  a  year ;  and 
BO  careful  were  they  of  the  animals,  that  bread  and  milk  were  pro- 
vided for  two  that  could  not  crop  the  grass.  The  ]ios})ital  grounds 
extended  over  twenty-five  acres,  and  were  surrounded  by  a  high 
wall,  and  supplied  with  sheds  and  wards  for  the  accommodation  of 
the  animals. 

"  At  the  present  time  there  are  no  hospitals  for  the  cure  of  hu- 
man beings  when  sick,  or  maimed,  or  old,  because  they  were  sup- 
posed to  be  provided  for  by  the  Goveniment ;  while  places  are 
prepared  and  persons  engaged  to  attend  the  sick  and  aged  of  the 
inferior  animals — proving  how  much  the  essential  is  sacrificed  to  an 

*  7yv.  ril.,  Tol.  ii,  p.  395. 

f  "  If  proper  inrpiirr  were  directed  to  this  building,"  writes  Princcp?,  "  I  dare  .«a.v  it 
would  be  discoviTC'l  to  be  a  lining  example  (the  only  one  that  has  braved  twenty  centu- 
ries) of  the  humane  arts  of  Asoka,  recorded,  at  no  great  distance,  on  a  rock  in  Guicrat." 


264  THE  ESTABLISHMENT   OF  THE  VETERINARY   SCHOOLS. 

affected  refinement  of  feeling.  ISTiebulir  found  the  hospital  con- 
taining horses,  mules,  cows,  oxen,  sheep,  goats,  monkeys,  a  variety 
of  sick  and  maimed  beasts,  poultry,  pigeons,  and  birds  ;  also  an  old 
tortoise,  which  was  known  to  have  been  there  seventy-five  years. 
In  sickness  the  animals  are  attended  by  properly  instructed  indi- 
viduals with  the  greatest  care,  and  here  they  find  a  peaceable  asy- 
lum for  the  infirmities  of  age.  When  an  animal  broke  a  limb, 
or  was  otherwise  disabled,  its  owner  brought  it  to  this  hospital, 
where  it  was  always  received  without  regard  to  the  caste  or  na- 
tion of  its  master.  There  they  remained  for  life,  and  the  only 
work  they  were  required  to  perform  was  drawing  water  for  the  pa- 
tients of  the  hospital.  Above-stairs  were  depositories  for  seeds 
of  many  sorts,  and  flat,  broad  dishes  for  water  for  birds  and  in- 
sects. 

"  In  1823  Sir  Alexander  Brown  visited  the  brute  hospital  at 
Surat.  It  is  situated  in  the  suburbs,  between  the  inner  and  outer 
wall,  surrounded  by  houses  and  a  dense  poj^ulation.  It  occupies  a 
court  fifty  feet  square,  to  w^hich  is  attached  a  large  area  to  admit 
cattle  to  roam  about,  and  is  strewed  with  grain  and  straw,  to  prevent 
the  inmates  wanting  either  food  or  bedding.  They  receive  animals 
of  all  descriptions,  from  all  countries,  as  the  more  numerous  they  are 
the  more  they  increase  the  reputation,  happiness,  and  prosjDcrity  of 
those  who  support  them.  In  the  hospital  Sir  Alexander  found  the 
old,  lame,  or  disabled  animals  consisted  of  buffaloes,  cows,  goats, 
sheep,  cocks,  and  hens  ;  some  of  the  latter  had  lost  their  featliers. 
There  were  cages  to  protect  the  birds,  but  most  of  them  were  empty, 
and  a  colony  of  pigeons  were  fed  daily.  One  of  the  houses,  twenty- 
five  feet  long,  has  a  boarded  floor  elevated  eight  feet,  under  which 
the  Buddhists  throw  a  quantity  of  grain  (the  oftener  the  better  for 
themselves),  as  a  work  of  charity,  which  in  the  hot  and  stagnant  air 
gives  life  to  a  mass  of  vermin  dense  as  the  sand  of  the  sea-shore." 

The  Yeteeinary  Instftutions  of  France. 

It  is  impossible  for  me  to  give  more  than  a  very  incomplete  ac- 
count of  the  veterinary  institutions  of  Euroj^e,  there  being  no  mod- 
ern history  of  veterinary  medicine ;  hence  I  have  been  obliged  to 
collect  such  information  as  I  could  from  different  articles  in  maga- 
zines in  my  possession,  though  I  have  derived  great  aid  from  the 
article  entitled  "  Yeterinaire  "  in  D'Arboval-Zundel's  "  Dictionnaire 
de  Medecine,"  etc.,  Paris,  18T7.  I  have  also  been  fortunate  in  pos- 
sessing two  reports  of  German  veterinarians  of  unquestionable  abil- 
ity, Hertwig  and  Miiller,  who  visited  France  at  different  times  in  the 


THE   VETERIN'ARY   INSTITUTIONS   OF   FRANCE.  205 

interest  of  their  own  Ciuvernineiit.  I  have  myself  visited  several 
of  the  German  schools,  and  also  that  at  Alfort,  France. 

The  Continental  schools  for  the  stndy  and  development  of  veteri- 
nary medicine  were  not  founded  by  the  respective  governments  bo 
much  to  educate  men  to  practice  their  profession,  as  to  provide  men 
capable  of  studying  the  nature  of  those  fearful  pests  which  had  re- 
peatedly brought  poverty  to  the  people,  and  even  threatened  nations 
with  ruin,  and  to  discover  means  for  their  prevention. 

In  this  regard  the  French  schools  took  a  slightly  different  course 
from  those  of  Germany,  giving  more  attention  to  the  practical  at 
the  expense  of  the  scientific  in  their  education;  this  reproach  is  not, 
however,  applicable  to  the  French  schools  of  our  day,  especially 
those  at  Lyons  and  Toulouse,  although  that  at  Alfort  has  contrib- 
uted no  insignificant  amount  of  scientific  work,  especially  that  of 
the  veterinary  physiologist  Colin,  and  M.  Bouley,  the  inspector-gen- 
eral of  the  schools.  At  the  time  when  the  first  veterinary  schools 
were  established  in  France,  that  nation  was  approaching  the  proud 
position  of  leader  in  medical  science  and  culture,  which  she  held  for 
half  a  century.  Bichat,  a  giant  among  giants,  founded  a  new  sys- 
tem of  anatomy,  and  died  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-one,  a  martyr  to 
the  cause  of  science  and  a  benefactor  to  the  world.  Cniveilhier,  the 
author  of  a  noted  M'ork  upon  pathology  ;  Laennec,  the  author  of  per- 
cussion and  auscultation  ;  Broussais,  the  vampire  of  medicine,  so 
called  on  account  of  the  extent  to  which  he  advocated  bleeding ;  and 
many  others,  all  tended  to  make  Paris  a  haven  toward  which  men 
desiring  knowledge  in  this  branch  of  science  longingly  turned ; 
longing,  not  like  some  American  women  to  go  to  Paris  to  die,  but 
for  that  M-isdom  with  which  her  intellectual  fountains  were  so  re- 
pletcly  filled. 

It  was  but  in  the  order  of  things  that  the  first  veterinary  school 
of  the  world  should  be  started  by  a  Frenchman,  and  in  France. 
This  honor  belongs  to  an  "advocate,"  Claude  Bourgelat,  1712-'79. 
This  young  man  was  educated  to  follow  the  profession  of  law,  and 
studied  at  Toulouse.  Having  by  his  talent  won  a  Ciise  which  after- 
ward appeared  unjust  to  him — we  wish  some  of  our  young  American 
lawyers  would  follow  his  example  I — he  resolved  to  retire  from  that 
profession,  and,  having  from  early  youth  nourished  a  passionate 
fondness  for  the  horse,  resolved  to  encourage  this  tiiste ;  in  order  to 
do  this,  he  became  an  officer  in  a  cavalry  regiment  for  a  short  time, 
and  then  chief  of  the  riding  academy  at  Lyons,  which  soon  acquired 
great  notoriety  under  the  guidance  of  its  enthusiastic  teacher.  The 
earnest  spirit  of  the  young  riding-master  could  not  content  itself 


266  TDE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF   THE   VETERINARY  SCHOOLS. 

with  studying  the  outward  forms  of  his  equine  favorites  alone — he 
must  know  more  ;  he  must  know  of  the  inner  powers,  the  machinery 
of  which  this  wonderful  whole  was  composed.  He  therefore  gave 
himself  most  diligently  to  the  study  of  equine  anatomy  as  M^ell  as 
physiology,  these  studies  being  encouraged  by  his  friend  Pouteau, 
one  of  the  most  eminent  surgeons  of  Lyons.  At  the  same  time  he 
devotedly  studied  the  writings  of  earlier  veterinarians,  and  published 
two  works — "Kouveau  Newcastle,"  1747,  and  the  "Elements  of 
Yeterinary  Medicine,"  1750.  Bourgelat  has  mistakenly  been  called  a 
reformer  of  veterinary  medicine  ;  on  the  contrary,  his  was  the  spirit 
which  gave  cause  to  the  birth  of  scientific  research  in  a  branch  of 
medicine  which  until  his  time  had  been  nothing  but  the  crudest 
empiricism.  The  real  science  in  veterinary  medicine  did  not  find 
birth  till  many  years  after  Bourgelat's  death.  He  broke  the  bonds 
of  quackery  and  superstition  to  a  degree,  and  gave  science  room  and 
opportunity  to  develop.  In  one  thing  Bourgelat  was  indeed  wiser 
than  Lafosse,  in  that  he  extended  his  studies  beyond  the  horse,  see- 
ing the  necessity  of  studying  the  anatomy,  physiology,  and  pathol- 
ogy of  all  the  domestic  animals ;  but  Lafosse  was  his  superior  in  intel- 
lect, in  that  freedom  of  mind  which  evinced  itself  in  his  taking  an 
active  part  for  the  freedom  of  his  countrymen  in  the  Revolution. 
On  the  5th  of  August,  1761,  through  the  influence  of  his  friend 
Bertin,  he  received  permission  to  found  a  school  in  Lyons,  the  aim 
of  which  was  to  study  the  diseases  of  all  the  domestic  animals.  The 
Government  supported  him  with  the  assistance  of  50,000  livres,  pay- 
able in  equal  portions  for  six  consecutive  years.  This  school  was 
opened  to  students  the  2d  of  January,  1762,  in  a  small  house,  for- 
merly used  as  a  hotel,  in  a  suburb  of  Lyons  called  "  La  Guillatiere." 
It  soon  acquired  Continental  celebrity,  and  among  the  students  of 
its  first  year  we  find  the  names  of  three  Danes,  three  Swedes,  three 
Austrians,  three  Prussians,  three  Sardinians,  and  ten  Swiss,  all  sent 
to  study  the  elements  of  the  new  medicine  by  and  at  the  expense  of 
their  respective  goveriiments.  The  branches  at  first  taught  were 
zootomy,  especially  that  of  the  horse  (exterior),  horsemanship,  phar- 
macy, special  pathology,  surgery,  and  the  principles  of  sanitary 
police. 

Scarcely  was  the  foundation  of  the  school  successfully  accom- 
plished, before  France  was  again  the  seat  of  the  ravages  of  the  de- 
vastating animal  plagues,  which  gave  its  students  an  opportunity  to 
display  the  value  of  systematic  education,  crude  as  it  then  was,  over 
the  still  cruder  but  futile  attempts  of  a  puerile  empiricism.  The 
students,  guided  by  the  teachings  of  their  master,  were  so  successful 


THE   VETERINARY   INSTITCTIONS  OF  FRANCE.  267 

as  to  attract  the  attention  of  tlie  king,  Louis  XV,  wlio  in  an  order 
dated  June  30,  1704,  gave  to  the  institution  tlie  title  of  a  "  lioyal 
Veterinary  School."  A  month  previously  the  king  had  honored 
Bourgclat  with  the  title  of  "  Director  and  General  Inspector  of  the 
Veterinary  School  at  Lyons,"  and  all  other  such  institutions  which 
should  be  founded  in  France.  The  intimate  relation  which  Bourge- 
lat  bears  to  the  early  history  of  the  first  two  veterinary  schools  of 
France  and  the  world,  makes  it  almost  impossible  to  treat  them 
separately.  Such  was  the  success  above  alluded  to,  of  the  students 
of  the  Lyons  scliool,  in  combating  the  ravages  of  the  animal  pests, 
that  the  French  Government  determined  to  establish  a  second  insti- 
tution of  a  like  character.  It  seems  ever  to  have  been  the  aim  of 
the  French  Government  to  make  Paris  the  center  of  French  learning 
and  civilization  ;  hence  it  was  but  natural  that  a  point  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  that  city  should  be  selected  as  the  site  of  the  second  school. 
Therefore,  on  the  27th  of  December,  17G5,  a  tract  of  land  in  the 
village  of  Alfort — opposite  what  is  now  called  Charcnton,  at  pres- 
ent connected  with  Paris  by  a  horse-railroad,  and  also  by  steamboats 
on  the  river — was  purchased  for  the  sum  of  32,000  livres,  and  Bour- 
gclat called  to  be  its  director,  which  position  he  occupied  until  his 
death.  Like  the  majority  of  men  who  give  their  lives  for  the  devel- 
opment of  science,  and  in  service  to  their  countrymen,  Bourgclat 
died  poor,  but  not  unforgotten,  as  is  attested  by  the  immortality 
with  which  his  name  is  reverenced  in  France,  and  the  monument 
lately  erected  to  his  memory  by  his  veterinary  successors  in  France 
and  other  parts  of  the  world.  From  the  first,  the  Government  did 
more  for  the  support  of  the  school  at  Alfort  than  that  at  Lyons, 
for,  while  the  latter  school  received  but  8,333  livres  per  year  for 
a  period  of  six  years,  we  find  the  Alfort  school  receiving  some 
12,000.  The  Abbe  Rozier  succeeded  Bourgclat  in  the  direction  of 
the  school  at  Lyons,  which  for  many  years  underwent  all  sorts  of 
vicissitudes,  but  finally  received  its  full  share  of  acknowledgment, 
and  is  at  present  a  most  dangerous  rival  to  that  of  Alfort  for  the 
honors  with  which  fair  Science  wreaths  the  hrows  of  her  ancresfiful 
children. 

Ilavemann,*  afterward  teacher  and  director  of  the  Royal  Veteri- 
nary School  at  Hanover,  wa.«i  sent  by  that  Government  to  study  vet- 
erinary medicine  at  Alfort  at  this  time.  While  there  he  wrote  the 
following  letter,  describing  the  condition  of  things,  to  the  master 
of  the  Royal  Horse  at  Hanover : 

*  "  History  of  the  Veterinary  School  ot  Hanover,  from  1777  to  1877,"  p.  45. 


268  THE  ESTABLISHMENT   OF  THE   VETERIXARY   SCHOOLS. 

"  Alfort  by  Charenton,  Auffust  29,  1777. 

"  The  Koyal  Yeterinary  School  has,  besides  the  director,  M. 
Bourgelat  (who,  however,  does  not  instruct  any  more,  but  resides 
generally  in  Paris),  three  teachers.  The  first,  who  is  known  as  di- 
rector and  professor,  educates  in  practice  and  pharmacy  ;  the  second 
teaches  materia  medica  and  botany,  and  the  third  anatomy.  The 
majority  of  the  students  complete  their  course  in  three  years,  and 
take  them  in  the  following  order : 

'■^  First  Summer. — Exterior  of  the  horse. 

"  First  Winter. — Osteology  and  myology. 

"  Second  Summer. — On  the  selection  of  horses,  their  care,  etc. 

"  Second  Winter. — Splanchnology. 

"  Third  Summer. — Materia  medica  and  botany. 

"  Third  Winter. — Xeurology,  angiology,  and  adenology. 

"  Those  students  who  are  blessed  with  a  good  memory,  and  who 
are  able  to  leara  anatomy  in  two  winters,  end  their  course  in  two 
and  one  half  years,  while  many  require  four.  Here  no  other  hooks 
are  in  use  than  those  B  our gelat  himself  has  written  ujjon  the  subject. 
The  books  must  be  learned  verhatirn  from  beginning  to  end;  in 
order  that  this  may  be  complete,  one  of  the  older  students,  who  is 
selected  by  the  director  and  bears  the  title  of  '  chef,'  reviews  the 
students  each  week,  and  explains  and  illustrates  the  various  points. 
TVhen  the  course  is  ended,  the  whole  is  again  repeated  before  the 
director,  and  he  who  can  rattle  his  books  off  best  receives  the  pre- 
mium of  a  case  of  instruments  valued  at  fifty  livres. 

"  Those  who  have  ended  their  course  practice  operative  surgery 
upon  the  horses  which  are  to  be  used  for  anatomy,  and  also  practice 
horseshoeing  in  the  forge.  When  not  confined  by  the  hours  devoted 
to  study,  the  students  may  practice  in  the  forge  at  pleasure.  In  mak- 
ing shoes  and  farriery  the  instruction  is  given  by  a  '  chef.'  Scarcely 
any  instruction  is  given  in  pathology,  or  the  director  does  it  in  a 
very  cursory  manner  when  treating  of  other  subjects ;  the  director 
seldom  detains  the  students  by  the  sick  horses  in  order  that  they 
may  study  the  patients,  or  to  explain  their  diseases  to  them,  w^hich 
can  have  no  other  result  than  that  the  students  do  not  learn  to  diag- 
nose diseases,  and  but  few  appreciate  this  great  necessity.  The 
medicines  are  prepared  by  the  students  and  given  by  them  to  the 
patients.  This  is  done  by  those  who  have  ended  their  course,  four 
such  being  weekly  appointed  to  this  purpose.  At  present  there  are 
about  seventy  sick  horses  in  the  hospital,  and  for  each  the  daily  fee 
is  thirty-five  sous  (forty  cents)  for  medicine,  care,  and  feeding.    The 


THE    VETERINARY    LNiSTlTUTlONS   OF   FRANCE.  269 

director  has  exceedingly  little  to  do,  and  one  pei-son  can  as  surely 
give  as  good  instruction  to  the  students  as  all  three  professoi-s.  The 
students  are  controlled  very  strictly.  Aside  from  Sundays  and 
Thui-sdays,  no  students  can  leave  the  grounds  of  tlie  school  without 
permission  from  the  director.  Everything  is  arranged  by  the  ring- 
ing of  a  bell — getting  up,  study,  attending  to  patients,  eating,  and 
retirinj;.  Each  student  must  be  in  the  dissectinjr-room  at  7  a.  m.  in 
the  summer,  and  8  in  the  winter.  A  chief  calls  the  roll  and  reports 
each  one  who  is  absent.  Each  student  must  remain  in  this  room,  or 
at  least  on  the  grounds,  and  before  11  no  student  can  go  toliis  room. 
At  2  r.  M.  the  same  course  is  gone  through  with,  and  at  G  the  stud- 
ies are  ended.  The  students  are  kept  under  severe  military  regula- 
tion, and  the  'chefs'  arrange  the  service  of  the  sub-officers.  There 
are  about  eighty  students  here,  of  whom  twenty  arc  destined  for  the 
cavalry  regiments  ;  these  have  special  barracks  outside  the  school, 
and  are  under  their  own  officer ;  the  rest  are  lodged  in  tlie  school, 
and,  inclusive  of  meals,  pay  yearly  3G0  livres.  The  king  pays  the 
professors.  Each  student,  when  he  goes  into  the  court-yard,  must 
wear  the  school  uniform,  which  consists  of  a  blue  frock  with  yellow 
buttons,  upon  whicii  is  a  lily  suiTounded  by  the  words  '  Ecolc  roiale 
veterinaire.'  The  uniform  of  the  '  chefs '  is  distinguished  by  a 
double  golden  '  tresse '  upon  the  collar.  The  botanical  garden  is 
prettily  arranged,  and  contains  0,700  plants.  Xotliing  seems  to  have 
been  forgotten  which  can  add  to  the  comfort  and  beauty  of  the 
school." 

In  1705  the  French  Government  considered  the  erection  of  a 
school  at  Toulouse  for  the  soutli  of  France,  but  it  was  not  until  1825 
that  the  idea  came  to  realization,  Dupuy  being  its  first  director. 
This  school  was  intended  to  give  especial  attention  to  the  study  of 
diseases  of  cattle,  and  if  one  may  judge  from  the  efforts  of  Toussaint 
in  reference  to  "  charbon,"  this  intention  has  been  most  successful. 

"  Alexis  Casimir  Dupuy  *  was  bom  at  Breteuil,  the  27th  Sep- 
tember, 1775,  and  died  September,  1S40.  He  was  the  son  of  the 
postmaster  of  his  village.  It  is  without  doubt  that  his  intimacy 
with  horses  .ind  other  animals  in  his  youth  was  the  cause  of  his  de- 
voting himself  to  the  science  which  he  so  faithfully  served.  Ilis 
first  education  was  received  at  the  college  at  Beauvais,  and  later  at 
the  college  of  'Louis  le  Grand,'  at  Paris.  In  1792,  when  seven- 
teen years  old,  we  find  him,  with  many  other  young  Frenchmen,  in 
the  ranks  of  the  revolutionists ;  he  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Je- 

*  Schracdcr-IIering,  loc  cit.,  p.  111. 


270  THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF  THE   VETERINARY   SCHOOLS. 

mappes,  where  lie  displayed  so  much  courage  as  to  be  honored  with 
the  standard  of  his  regiment.  In  1795  he  retired  from  the  army 
and  entered  the  veterinary  school  at  Alfort.  Having  passed  the 
requisite  examination  successfully,  we  find  him,  in  1798,  acting  as 
assistant  at  his  Alma  Mater,  and,  after  passing  successfully  the  re- 
quired competitive  examination,  received  the  professorship  of  Bot- 
any, Chemistry,  Pharmacy,  and  Materia  Medica.  In  1805  he  ac- 
quired the  title  of  Doctor  of  Medicine,  after  having  devotedly  given 
himself  to  the  study  of  the  necessary  branches ;  his  dissertation 
treated  upon  '  Purulent  Abscesses  and  Tumors.'  At  this  time  he 
was  very  intimate  with  Dupuytren,  so  well  known  in  the  history  of 
French  medicine  at  this  period.  He  gave  his  chief  attention  to  the 
study  of  pathological  anatomy,  recognizing  the  fact  that  all  talk 
about  disease  is  but  mere  words,  unless  one  knows  intimately  of 
what  disease  consists.  The  first  product  of  his  investigation  in  this 
important  branch  of  medicine  was  a  work  which  gave  rise  to  much 
discussion,  upon  '  Tuberculosis,  which  is  generally  called  Glanders,' 
Paris,  1817.  Dieterichs,  who  studied  with  him  in  Paris,  says  that 
he  '  sought  to  find  tubercles  everywhere,  though  no  one  with  healthy 
eyes  could  see  them,  and  that  he  would  gladly  have  seen  every  dis- 
ease classed  under  this  one  name,  so  enthusiastic  was  he  in  this 
direction.'  His  own  countrymen  seem  to  have  recognized  his  zeal 
in  this  direction." 

With  the  opening  of  the  Toulouse  school,  he  was  called  to  be  its 
director,  but  his  mind  was  so  exclusively  scientific  that  he  does  not 
seem  to  have  had  the  attributes  necessary  to  successfully  fill  such  a 
position,  for  in  1832  he  was  discharged,  even  without  a  pension. 
He  then  removed  to  Paris,  and  engaged  in  practice  and  the  publi- 
cation of  books,  but  his  endeavors  do  not  appear  to  have  been  re- 
warded by  success,  for  he  left  his  family  in  such  a  destitute  con- 
dition that  the  Central  Veterinary  Society  of  Paris  felt  themselves 
obhged  to  institute  a  collection  for  their  benefit. 

During  the  extension  of  the  empire  under  Napoleon  I  the  estab- 
lishment of  three  other  veterinary  schools  was  considered,  but  only 
one  came  to  a  positive  result — that  at  Turin,  Italy,  which  is  still  in 
existence. 

The  French  schools  have  from  the  beginning  enjoyed  a  creditable 
independence  from  those  of  medicine,  though  not  without  attempts 
aiming  to  unite  these  two  branches  of  medical  education.  At  first 
they  were  under  the  control  of  the  Minister  of  the  Interior,  but 
later  have  been  controlled  by  the  Minister  of  Agriculture,  Com- 
merce, and  Industry,  assisted  by  an  inspector-general,  that  position 


THE   VETERINARY    INSTITUTIUNS   OF   FRANCE.  271 

being  occupied  by  the  accoinplisheJ  M.  Bouley,  member  of  the 
Academy,  etc.  In  the  year  1777  the  French  Government  pubhshed 
very  detailed  regulations  for  the  guidance  of  the  schools,  which  have 
suffered  but  few  modifications  to  the  present  day,  although  their 
organization  as  part  of  a  common  institution  of  the  land  was  not 
fully  completed  until  May  10,  1673,  when  a  decree  to  that  efiect 
was  issued. 

In  accordance  with  this  decree,  the  students  are  classed  as  "  Aleves 
internes,"  or  regular  students,  "  eleves  externes,"  and  "  auditeurs 
libres  "  ;  of  these,  the  first  form  by  far  the  greater  majority.  On 
account  of  the  similarity  of  organization,  a  visit  to  one  of  the  three 
national  schools  will  give  an  observer  a  very  good  idea  of  them  all. 

The  number  of  professors  is  the  same  at  each  of  the  three  schools, 
being  six,  and  an  irregular  number  of  '"  chefs  de  service,"  or  assist- 
ants. The  professors  and  assistants  receive  their  appointment  from 
the  minister,  after  having  demonstrated  their  ability  by  public  com- 
petition for  the  vacancy  in  question.  These  competitions  are  made 
known  to  the  public  in  appropriate  publications,  some  six  months 
before  they  are  to  take  place.  Each  competitor  must  be  a  French- 
man by  birth  or  naturalized,  and  a  graduate  of  one  of  the  national 
schools.  If  the  competition  is  for  a  place  as  assistant,  the  person 
must  bring  a  certificate  that  he  is  free  from  military  duty,  or  that 
he  has  permission  to  present  himself  for  the  purpose. 

The  competition  is  generally  divided  into  five  sittings  or  parts: 
at  the  first,  the  competitors  have  to  present  an  essay  upon  some  sub- 
ject in  connection  with  the  vacancy  which  is  open ;  in  the  second 
and  third,  they  have  to  deliver  oral  dissertations  of  a  like  character  ; 
in  the  fourth,  in  connection  with  any  subject  belonging  to  veterinary 
medicine  ;  in  the  fifth,  they  must  show  their  practical  ability  in 
different  branches  of  the  profession.  The  tasks  for  the  second, 
third,  and  fourth  sittings  are  made  known  to  the  candidates  twenty- 
four  hours  before  each  sitting.  The  candidates  for  the  positions  of 
"  chefs  de  service  "  must  make  known  their  intention  of  competing 
one  month  previous  to  the  date  fixed  for  competition.  In  the  year 
1871  the  budget  ordered  for  the  support  of  the  veterinary  schools 
was  G73,000  francs;  and  in  1873,  G56,500.  No  perquisites  are 
allowed  the  professors  fur  examinations,  the  money  received  for  the 
same  being  added  to  the  school  funds  ;  in  the  place  of  this  the  pro- 
fessors receive  500  francs  a  year  in  addition  to  their  regular  pay. 
At  Alfort,  all  officers  of  the  school  have  free  lodgings  found  them, 
each  professor  having  six  rooms,  two  being  situated  on  each  story  of 
a  three-storied  building.    Each  assistant  has  three  rooms  at  his  service. 


272  THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF  THE  VETERINARY   SCHOOLS. 

In  1876  the  corps  of  professors  at  Alfort  were  as  follow : 

M.  Keynal  (since  retired  and  pensioned),  Director  and  Lecturer 
on  Veterinary  Jurisprudence  ;  M.  Gouboux,  Lecturer  on  Descriptive 
and  General  Anatomj',  Histology,  Physiology,  and  Exterior;  M. 
Baillet,  Lecturer  on  Breeding,  Hygiene,  Zoology,  and  Botany ;  M. 
Saunier,  Lecturer  on  Physics,  Chemistry,  Materia  Medica,  and  Pharma- 
cy ;  M.  Colen,  Lecturer  on  General  Pathology,  Therapeutics,  Surgery, 
Parasitic  Diseases,  and  Horseshoeing ;  M.  Trasbot,  Superintendent 
of  Clinic,  Lecturer  on  Special  and  Surgical  Pathology.  The  "  chefs 
de  service  "  were  M.  Baron,  assistant  to  and  repeater  upon  those 
subjects  upon  which  M.  Baillet  lectures.  He  also  conducts  the  ex- 
cursions to  the  model  farm  situated  about  a  mile  from  the  institu- 
tion, as  well  as  to  the  cattle  and  horse  markets  of  Paris,  and  botani- 
cal excursions  ;  M.  Barrier,  assistant  to  and  repeater  of  the  subjects 
lectured  upon  by  M.  Gouboux,  also  teacher  of  histological  micro- 
scopical practice ;  M.  Nocard,  assistant  in  the  clinic  and  surgery, 
and  demonstrator  of  autopsies ;  M.  Baillet,  assistant  in  clinic  and 
surgery. 

The  course  of  study  occupies  four  years,  the  lectures  lasting  one 
hour  and  a  half  each.     The  sessions  are  divided  as  follows  : 

First  Session  (  Whiter). — Anatomy,  physics  or  chemistry,  bota- 
ny or  zoology.  These  subjects  are  reviewed  by  M.  Barrier  during 
the  session. 

Second  Session. — Chemistry  or  materia  medica,  exterior  or  gen- 
eral anatomy.     Reviewed  by  M.  Barrier. 

Third  Session. — Anatomy,  physics  or  chemistry,  botany  or  zool- 
ogy, general  pathology,  and  therapeutics.    Reviewed  by  M.  Barrier. 

Fourth  Session. — Physiology,  general  anatomy,  botany,  micro- 
scopy, and  chemical  analysis.     Reviewed  by  M.  Barrier. 

Fifth  Session. — Special  j)athology,  therapeutics,  hygiene,  general 
pathology,  agriculture  ;  clinic  is  held  three  hours  each  day  on  week- 
days, and  two  on  Sundays. 

Sixth  Session. — Special  pathology  and  surgery,  hygiene,  phar- 
maceutical practice,  general  pathology,  therapeutics,  parasitic  dis- 
eases, theories  of  oj^erative  surgery,  and  agriculture.  Clinic  as  be- 
fore. These  subjects  are  reviewed  by  assistants  Baron,  Nocard,  and 
Baillet. 

Seventh  Session. — ^Practice  in  operative  surgery,  special  patholo- 
gy and  surgery,  parasitic  diseases,  agriculture,  forensic  medicine, 
sanitary  police,  and  excursions  to  the  cattle  and  horse  markets. 
Clinic  as  before.     Subjects  reviewed  by  MM.  JSTocard  and  Baillet. 

Eighth  Session. — Practice  in  operative  surgery,  special  patholo- 


THE    VETERINARY    IXSTITCTIONS   OF  FR.VXCE.  273 

gy  and  surgery,  parasitic  diseases,  breeding,  agriculture,  toxicology. 
Excursions  to  the  model  farm.  Clinic  as  before.  Subjects  reviewed 
by  appropriate  assistants. 

The  lectures  on  agriculture  were  then  delivered  by  M.  lleuze. 
The  subject  of  dissection  luis  not  been  mentioned  in  the  above 
course,  because  of  the  irregularity  of  the  hours  devoted  to  it. 

The  above  plan  is  open  to  some  criticism  :  one  is  at  a  loss  to 
understand  why  the  word  "  or''  is  placed  between  so  many  branches, 
except  that  the  lecturer  will  dilate  upon  one  '•  or  "  the  other  subject 
at  the  lecture  m  question.  Pathological  anatomy  is  not  mentioned, 
but  is  treated  at  the  same  time  with  general  pathology.  Surgery 
and  special  ])athology  are  united  in  one  series  of  lectures,  and  the 
important  branch  of  obstetrics  is  not  mentioned,  although  we  have 
reason  to  know  it  is  not  neglected.  Professor  Miiller  says  that 
''  when  one  adds  the  number  of  hours  devoted  to  lectures  in  the  four 
years'  course  of  the  French  schools,  he  is  surprised  to  find  that  they 
are  exceeded  by  the  number  required  by  the  (former)  three  years' 
course  at  Berlin.''  The  number  of  professors  at  the  French  pcliools 
is  insufficient  to  do  the  work  well  that  is  requii'ed  of  them,  and  they 
should  be  relieved  by  the  addition  of  a  greater  number  of  special- 
ists. We  shall  see  this  plan  better  carried  out  when  we  come  to 
speak  of  the  school  at  Berlin,  although  there  is  room  for  still  further 
improvement  there,  so  far  as  the  clinic  is  concerned.  At  the  French 
schools  the  distribution  of  the  studies  over  the  educational  term  is 
not  conducive  to  the  best  interests  of  the  scholars,  too  little  being 
required  of  them  during  the  early  part  of  their  studies,  and  too 
much  toward  their  completion.  This  is  equalized  by  the  great 
number  of  repetitions  to  which  they  are  subjected  by  the  a^ssistants. 
Clinical  practice  and  surgery  assume  an  undue  prominence  in  the 
French  system,  to  the  cost  of  pathological  anatomy  and  the  funda- 
mental elements  upon  which  mcdicid  science  rests.  It  should  ever 
be  remembered,  in  establishing  a  school  for  the  education  of  men  in 
the  principles  of  medicine,  that  the  hiyhhj-prhed  practical  man 
never  advances  science  an  iota  /  he  is  a  money-getter,  not  a  servant  of 
his  race  ;  this  has  been  most  empJiaticall y  emphasized  hy  the  schools 
of  Britain,  where  practice  has  hen  the  on^  desideratutn,  and  sci- 
ence almost  totally  neglected.  The  union  of  both  in  one  person 
makes  the  perfect  practitioner  in  veterinary  as  well  as  human  prac- 
tice. One  might  suppose  that  the  clinic  of  the  Alfort  school  would 
sofEer  from  its  being  so  distant  from  Paris,  but  this  does  not  appear 
to  be  the  case,  the  country  around  being  well  populated.  At  the 
time  of  Miilier's  visit,  which  was  during  the  vacation  in  the  sum- 
is 


274  THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF   THE   VETERINARY   SCHOOLS. 

mer  of  1876,  the  clinic  was  restricted  as  rauch  as  possible  on  ac- 
count of  the  absence  of  students,  yet  there  were  forty  horses  and 
twenty  dogs  in  the  hospital.  A  free  clinic  is  also  held  daily  at  the 
school,  and  is  visited  by  fifty  or  sixty  patients  each  day.  The  sta- 
bles have  room  for  about  fifty  horses,  and  the  dog-hospital  accom- 
modates the  same  number  of  patients.  The  school  is  provided 
with  a  special  room  for  operations,  with  raised  steps,  arranged  in 
a  semicircle,  for  the  students  to  stand  upon.  The  pharmacy  dis- 
penses the  medicines  used  at  the  schools,  and  gives  abundant  op- 
portunity for  the  students  to  become  expert  in  the  knowledge  and 
preparation  of  drugs.  The  stables  are  excellently  arranged  in  the 
form  of  a  horseshoe,  the  operating  saloon  being  the  center  or  toe  ; 
two  forges  also  join  it,  one  on  each  side,  the  full  clinic  being  held 
in  the  space  between  the  wings.  The  collection  of  surgical  imple- 
ments at  this  school  is  very  complete  and  well  arranged.  The 
school  fails  in  not  having  the  ambulatory  clinic,  common  to  the  Ger- 
man schools,  by  which  students  obtain  an  acquaintance  with  much 
outside,  especially  herd  practice.  This  is  in  a  measure  made  up  for 
by  the  visits  which  the  French  students  make  to  the  governmental 
model  farms  in  the  vicinity  of  the  schools.  The  two  rooms  devoted 
to  the  practice  of  dissection  are  of  middling  size,  high,  and  well 
lighted  and  ventilated.  The  anatomical  lectures  are  held  in  one  of 
these  rooms,  and  there  is  an  amphitheatre  for  the  students  to  stand 
upon.  Between  these  rooms  is  the  room  of  the  professor,  overlook- 
ing both  by  means  of  windows.  The  students  at  Alfort  belonging 
to  the  first  and  third  sessions  have  separate  rooms  for  anatomical 
practice,  and  also  have  different  lectures.  Those  of  the  first  session 
hear  lectures  upon  osteology,  sjmdesmology,  and  myology,  and  those 
of  the  third  the  remaining  parts  of  anatomy.  The  practice  of  anat- 
omy by  the  students  of  the  first  session  is  not  begun  until  they  have 
heard  lectures  on  osteology,  the  dissection  practice  being  limited  to 
muscles  and  ligaments.  The  contents  of  abdominal,  thoracic,  and 
cranial  cavities  are  passed  to  the  students  of  the  third  session. 
The  students  of  each  class  are  forbidden  to  visit  the  rooms  of  the 
other.  Both  classes  are  divided  into  sections  of  twelve  to  fifteen 
students,  half  of  the  students  of  the  first  and  third  classes  practicing 
dissection  for  one  week,  when  not  attending  lectures,  and  then  the 
other  half,  and  so  on  alternately  during  the  winter  months.  Each 
section  has  at  its  disposition  one  cadaver,  and  they  are  distributed 
to  students  of  each  section  as  above  mentioned.  During  the  week 
eight  cadavers  are  generally  given  to  the  students,  and  one  is  used 
by  the  professor.     Besides  these,  some  twelve  to  fifteen  cattle  are 


THE   VETERINARY   INSTITUTIONS  OF  FRANCE.  275 

pnrcliiised  each  year  for  the  study  of  anatomy.  Forty  to  fifty  liorees 
and  ten  or  twelve  cattle  are  also  purchased  each  winter  for  the  study 
of  operative  surgery,  and  the  practice  is  also  kept  up  in  summer. 
In  the  coui-se  of  the  year  some  two  hundred  and  fifty  horses  are 
used  for  these  purposes  at  Alfort.  They  are  hout^ht  by  the  school — 
the  students  payin<^  no  additioiud  fees  or  buying  themselves — and 
are  supplied  by  a  company  in  Paris,  at  about  forty  francs  per  liead, 
the  same  company  again  receiving  the  remains  after  the  scliool  is 
done  with  them.  The  amount  appropriated  by  the  Government  for 
these  purposes  alone  is  some  eight  to  nine  thousand  francs  per  year, 
exclusive  of  the  amount  paid  for  cattle.  During  the  fourth  session 
the  study  of  microscopical  anatomy  takes  place  ;  for  this  purpose  the 
students  are  divided  into  sections  of  twelve,  and  practice  one  week 
at  a  time,  the  specified  hours  and  turns  coming  round  about  once  a 
month.  The  school  possesses  six  microscopes,  so  that,  unless  a  stu- 
dent possesses  one  himself,  two  students  must  be  appointed  to  each 
microscope.  The  anatomical  museum  does  not  make  the  favorable 
impression  which  one  might  expect  from  the  long  existence  of  the 
school ;  it  fails  in  richness  of  material  and  systematic  arrangement. 
The  number  of  normal  skeletons  is  very  email,  scarcely  six  being 
observable.  Among  them  is  the  skeleton  of  a  thorough-bred  horse, 
which  was  killed  on  account  of  having  its  forearm  shattered  by  a 
ball  at  the  time  Fieschi  made  an  attempt  upon  the  life  of  Louis 
Philippe.  The  collection  contains  numerous  dried  preparations  of 
muscles  and  ligaments,  among  them  that  of  a  liorse  upon  which  is 
seated  what  was  once  a  man  and  groom  at  Alfort,  who  desired  that 
liis  body  should  be  preserved  in  this  way.  The  most  interesting  and 
instructive  collection  is  that  of  the  teeth  of  the  domestic  animals, 
arranged  so  as  to  show  their  condition  at  each  year  of  the  animal's 
life.  There  are  also  many  interesting  artificial  preparations  of 
papier-mache  and  wax.  The  pathological  collection  contains  a  very 
extensive  array  of  preparations  illustrating  those  processes  as  they 
take  place  in  rinderpest.  Not  more  than  ten  specimens  of  mon- 
strosities were  observable.  The  individual  preparations  are  tastefully 
mounted,  but  the  systematic  arrangement  is  poor.  A  zoological 
collection  is  being  begun,  owing  to  the  distance  of  the  school  from 
the  museums  at  Paris.  A  large,  well  arranged  botanical  garden 
helps  to  make  up  the  appurtenances  of  the  school.  The  institution 
has  also  excellently  arranged  stables  for  some  twenty-five  cows,  two 
hundred  sheep  and  swine.  The  library  of  the  school  contains  over 
ten  thousand  volumes,  mostly  French  works,  however ;  it  was 
greatly  enriched  at  the  death  of  the  noted  veterinary  author,  llu- 


276  THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF   THE   YETERIXARY   SCHOOLS. 

zard,  wliose  library  of  some  forty  thousand  Yolumes  was  pretty  well 
distributed  among  the  three  French  schools.  The  school  has  a  special 
librarian,  who  also  serves  as  curator  of  the  museum.  Students  are 
allowed  to  read  the  books  at  certain  hours,  but  are  not  permitted  to 
leave  the  room  while  there,  or  to  take  books  to  their  rooms.  Xone 
but  the  professors  can  take  books  to  their  residences.  The  school 
also  possesses  a  well-arranged  riding  academy,  having  some  twenty- 
five  hoi'ses,  and  a  riding-master  for  the  instruction  of  the  students. 
It  also  has  a  room  fitted  up  for  the  students  to  practice  music. 

The  Students. — It  has  been  previously  mentioned  that  the  stu- 
dents are  divided  uj3  into  three  classes^  viz.,  the  internal  or  regular 
students,  the  free  students,  and  those  known  as  external  students, 
who  come  and  go  as  they  please.  In  the  summer  of  1876,  Miiller 
reports  that  there  were  at  Alfort  275  regular  students,  35  external, 
and  12  free  students — the  latter  being  mostly  foreigners.  The 
"eleves  externes"  are  generally  students  that  did  not  present  them- 
selves at  the  end  of  the  fourth  year  for  examination,  and  are  study- 
ing, of  their  own  free-wi]l,  the  fifth,  or  those  who  have  been  put 
back  one  year  and  lost  the  support  of  the  Government.  For  admit- 
tance, a  student  must  not  be  under  seventeen  or  over  twenty-five 
years  of  age.  Each  student  must  present  a  certificate  of  birth,  and 
the  attestation  of  a  doctor  that  he  has  been  properly  vaccinated,  or 
has  had  the  small-pox,  and  that  he  possesses  a  healthy  physique,  espe- 
cially that  he  is  free  from  scrofula  ;  also  an  attestation  from  the  supe- 
rior officer  of  his  locality — mayor  or  prefect — that  he  has  a  good  moral 
character.  Students  over  twenty  years  of  age  must  also  bring  a  cer- 
tificate that  they  have  fulfilled  their  military  duties,  or  been  freed 
therefrom.  Their  acceptance  is  dependent  upon  the  consent  of  the 
minister  having  control  of  the  schools.  The  students  present  them- 
selves at  the  schools  for  the  first  time  about  the  beginning  of  Octo- 
ber (6th  ?),  and  are  then  subjected  to  a  matriculatory  examination, 
which  consists  in  writing  on  dictation  something  in  the  French  lan- 
guage, and  analyzations  of  portions  of  the  same ;  in  arithmetic  they 
must  have  a  knowledge  of  its  principal  elements,  of  the  decimal  sys- 
tem, and  arithmetical  and  geometric  proportion ;  in  geometry,  a 
knowledge  of  its  principal  elements ;  in  geography,  a  general  idea 
of  the  geography  of  the  world,  and  a  special  knowledge  of  that  of 
France.  They  also  have  to  write  an  essay,  or  something  like  it, 
upon  history  and  geography.  Special  favors  are  given  to  those  ap- 
plicants who  possess  the  title  of  "  bachelier  es  lettres  et  sciences." 
For  a  certain  number  of  students,  the  "  eleves  internes,"  the  Gov- 
ernment supplies  lodgings,  the  school  at  Alfort  affording  accommo- 


TUE   VETERINARY    INSTITUTIONS   OF  FRANCE.  277 

dation  for  275,  and  generally  all  these  places  are  occupied.  These 
students  pay  a  yearly  fee  of  six  hundred  francs  for  education,  lodg- 
ing, heating,  light,  board,  washing,  etc.,  and  the  other  two  classes 
pay  a  yearly  fee  of  two  hundred  francs. 

Those  students  that  have  passed  the  necessary  uiatriculatory  ex- 
amination, and  for  whom  there  is  not  the  necessary  lodging-room, 
have  the  right  to  enter  as  external  students,  not  being  then  subjected 
to  internal  regulations  of  the  school ;  but  few,  however,  take  advan- 
tage of  this  privilege,  most  of  them  preferring  to  wait  another  year 
for  financial  reasons,  rooms,  etc.  The  exclusion  from  the  "  inter- 
nat,"  or  school  boarding-house,  is  considered  the  severest  punishment 
which  can  come  upon  a  student.  Only  one  third  of  the  "  eleves  in- 
ternes" pay  this  six  hundred  francs  from  their  own  means;  two 
thirds  of  them  are  the  recipients  of  so-called  "  demi-bourses,"  or 
stipends,  which  equal  the  fees  paid  by  the  other  third.  To  receive 
them,  however,  the  student  must  first  have  been  at  the  school  six 
months,  and  have  demonstrated  his  worthiness  by  appropriate  con- 
duct, diligence,  etc.  These  stipends  are  paid  every  half-year,  and 
as  a  rule  are  enjoyed  by  the  students  during  their  whole  coui-se  of 
study,  being  only  withdrawn  in  case  of  gross  misconduct  or  want 
of  proper  knowledge,  in  proportion  to  the  time  the  recipient  has 
studied. 

There  are  three  sources  from  which  these  stipends  come,  viz.,  the 
prefects  of  departments,  the  Government,  and  the  military  funds. 
Each  department  has  two  stipends  to  pay  toward  the  support  of  one 
of  the  veterinary  schouls.  There  are  certain  regulations  to  be  com- 
plied with  for  the  reception  of  the  militaiy  stipends.  The  *'  eleves 
boursiers  militaires,"  or  military  students,  receive,  aside  from  the 
benefits  of  the  "  internat,"  clothing,  rent,  the  necessary  books  and 
instruments,  and  a  small  amount  of  pocket-money,  in  addition  to 
which  the  Government  pays  the  examination  fee  of  one  hundred 
francs;  whereas  the  other  students  having  the  benefit  of  the  "  in- 
temat''  have  to  pay  all  such  expenses.  The  military  administration 
provides  for  sixty  stipends,  all  of  which  were  enjoyed  by  Alfort  pre- 
vious to  187G,  but  they  are  now  so  divided  that  Alfort  receives 
thirty  and  the  schools  at  Lyons  and  Toulouse  fifteen  each.  The 
military  students,  after  becoming  twenty  years  of  age,  are  re(piircd 
to  sign  agreements  by  which  they  promise  to  serve  in  the  army  for 
five  years,  but  are,  during  their  course  of  study,  generally  free  from 
military  regulations.  The  number  of  students  at  Lyons  and  Tou- 
louse is  somewhat  less  than  at  Alfort.  The  whole  number  of  stu- 
dents at  these  schools  is,  in  general,  about  600,  so  that  each  year 


278  THE  ESTABLISHMEXT  OF  THE  VETEEIXARY  SCHOOLS. 

would  give  to  France  somewhere  about  150  newly  graduated  veteri- 
narians. (The  number  of  civil  veterinary  surgeons  in  France  was 
in  1860,  2,760 ;  in  1871,  3,036 ;  in  1875,  3,019.)  Every  two  or  four 
students  at  Alfort  have  a  room  in  which  they  sleep  only,  otherwise 
they  are  in  the  study  or  lecture  rooms  the  whole  day ;  each  year- 
student  having  a  separate  study-room  appropriated  to  his  use,  ex- 
cept that  the  third  and  fourth  year  students  have  a  study-room  in 
common.  They  are  allowed  certain  hours  for  recreation,  in  which 
they  are  permitted  to  visit  one  another  in  the  different  study-rooms, 
or  to  roam  over  the  court  and  garden  of  the  institute.  The  meals 
are  taken  in  a  common  room  {I'efectoire)  at  fixed  hours,  and  are 
good  and  sufficient.  Each  Sunday  a  "  bill  of  fare  "  is  posted  in  this 
room  for  the  ensuing  week,  which  has  been  inspected  by  the  direct- 
or, and  indorsed  by  him.  The  students  are  continually  under  the 
eye  of  certain  officers — "  surveillants  " — who  have  their  discipline  in 
charge  during  the  hours  of  study.  On  Sundays  the  students  are 
permitted  to  go  outside  the  school,  the  roll  being  called  at  11.30  p.  m. 
On  the  first  Sunday  of  every  month  they  are  allowed  to  remain  out 
until  12.30,  that  they  may  attend  the  theatres  in  the  city.  They  are 
only  allowed  to  receive  visitors  at  certain  hours,  and  in  rooms  near 
the  gate  appointed  for  the  purpose.  On  entering  the  school  one  is 
immediately  struck  with  the  peculiar  blue  frock  worn  by  all  the  stu- 
dents, which  would,  however,  give  a  far  better  appearance  of  uni- 
formity were  they  obliged  to  wear  the  same  form  of  hat  or  cap. 

There  is  no  state  examination  at  the  French  schools  as  in  Ger- 
many ;  on  the  contrary,  the  students  are  subjected  to  repeated  ex- 
aminations by  the  assistants,  and  at  the  end  of  each  session  by  the 
professors  in  their  respective  branches.  The  result  of  these  sessional 
provings  is,  that  students  found  unsatisfactory  are  put  back  for  a 
year  in  their  course,  and  lose  the  advantages  of  the  "  internat,"  or 
are  sent  from  the  school.  The  final  examination  for  the  diploma 
of  the  French  Government  is  simply  a  more  extended  sessional 
examination.  Of  late,  the  professors  have  been  ordered  by  the 
Government  to  prove  the  students  in  the  branches  of  the  first  two 
sessions  of  their  course.  This  examination  is  further  distinguished 
from  the  ordinary  sessional  in  that  each  student  must  attend  to  two 
sick  animals  in  the  hospital  and  perform  three  operations.  (It 
should  be  mentioned  here  that  in  the  French  schools,  other  Conti- 
nental schools  also,  the  students  have  a  certain  number  of  patients 
under  their  entire  charge  during  the  whole  course  of  their  hospital 
practice,  being  simply  guided  and  questioned  by  the  clinical  teach- 
ers.    This  amounts  to  the  same  thing  as  being  in  practice  while 


THE   VETERINARY    INSTITUTIONS   OF   FRANCE.  279 

studyinf]:,  and  offers  the  great  advantage  of  a  competent  advisor 
and  consulting  assistant.)  Aside  from  an  anatomico-pliysiological 
essay,  the  examination  is  entirely  oral.  Each  professor  hands  in  an 
account,  with  reference  to  each  student  examined,  in  the  form  of  a 
number,  which  is  inclosed  and  sealed  ;  these  numbers  are  then  added 
together  in  a  somewhat  complicated  manner. 

Ilertwig,  who  visited  the  French  schools  in  1S71,  in  speaking 
of  the  veterinary  condition  outside  the  schools,  says  that  the  civil 
veterinarian  is  entirely  dependent  upon  his  practice  for  a  livelihood, 
there  being  no  civil  official  veterinarians,  as  in  Germany,  occupy- 
ing positions  for  which  they  are  paid  by  the  Government.  Miil- 
ler,  who  visited  the  school  in  187G,  and  whose  report  I  have  mostly 
followed,  also  says  the  same  thing ;  "  but  that  in  some  depart- 
ments there  are  so-called  '  arrondisseraents'  which  receive  from  the 
communal  funds  from  three  to  six  hundred  francs  per  year,  but 
they  are  not  connected  directly  with  the  Government,  and  their  pay 
is  yearly  resumed."  A  revision  of  the  "  Laws  and  llegulations  of 
France  for  the  Prevention  and  Suppression  of  Contagious  Animal 
Diseases"  has  lately  been  made  by  the  Government  (1879),  but  I 
have  failed  to  see  any  indication  of  the  division  of  that  country 
into  departments  and  districts,  with  its  appropriate  government 
veterinarian,  as  we  shall  see  is  the  case  in  Germany  when  we  come 
to  speak  of  the  veterinary  institutions  of  that  country.  Such  may 
be  in  contemplation,  however,  and  will  be  a  great  gain  for  the  pro- 
fession in  that  country.  There  are,  however,  municipal  and  local 
veterinary  officials  stationed  as  inspectoi'S  of  markets,  horse-fairs, 
and  the  like.  Notwithstanding  most  earnest  remonstrance  on  the 
part  of  the  veterinary  profession  of  France  for  many  years,  tlie 
Government  has  not  yet  taken  the  steps  it  should  for  the  protection 
of  the  holders  of  its  own  diploma,  by  enacting  laws  for  the  suppres- 
sion of  quackery,  which  renders  the  task  of  gaining  an  honest  living 
unnecessarily  difficult  for  the  graduated  members  of  the  profession, 
for  the  quack  is  ever  ready  with  infallible  cure-alls,  and  is  ever  such 
a  glutton  and  an  unprincipled  wretch  that  he  will  work  for  any  fee, 
no  matter  how  small ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  frequently  gets  fees 
for  services  rendered  which  a  graduated  man  would  scarce  have  the 
effrontery  to  ask.  All  that  the  Government  does  is  to  make  known 
in  a  public  print  that  the  veterinarian  is  the  holder  of  a  government 
diploma  when  he  settles  in  a  district  to  practice.  These  conditions 
are  made  still  more  onerous  by  the  large  number  of  graduates  which 
are  yearly  turned  out  from  the  schools.  "In  1871  the  department 
of  the  Seine,  inclusive  of  Paris  and  the  school  at  Alfort,  and  several 


280  THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF  THE  VETERINARY   SCHOOLS. 

military  veterinarians,  had  115.  Of  these,  four  were  attached  to 
the  Ministry  of  War,  two  to  the  omnibus  companies,  one  as  in- 
spector of  the  horse-market,  two  as  inspectors  at  the  slaughter- 
houses, one  to  the  market-police,  and  one  to  the  court  stables. 

"  The  military  organization  is,  on  the  contrary,  well  arranged, 
and  the  army  veterinai'ians  are  well  placed,  both  in  regard  to  their 
rank  and  pecuniarily.  According  to  the  decree  of  1860,  the  French 
army  had  in  all  its  departments  337  veterinarians,  who  enjoyed  the 
following  positions :  4  principal,  120  first  class,  and  128  second 
class,  and  25  assistant  veterinarians.  The  yearly  pay  of  the  chiefs 
was  4,000  francs,  and  that  of  the  assistants  1,800.  When  the  chiefs 
were  retired,  they  received  a  pension  of  2,340  francs,  which  could 
be  increased  to  3,744.  Two  of  these  veterinarians  were  members 
of  the  commission  '  d'hygiene  hippique '  at  the  Ministry  of  War, 
and  a  third  was  veterinary  to  the  Guards,  and  resided  in  Paris.  A 
fourth  was  stationed  as  superior  veterinarian  at  the  cavalry-school 
at  Saumur,  and  a  fifth  in  a  similar  position  with  the  troops  and 
royal  stud  in  Algeria,  under  the  rank  of  '  etat  major.'  The  other 
three  classes  have  also  the  rank  of  officer,  with  corresponding  pay : 
for  the  first  class,  1,700  francs  as  minimal,  and  2,760  as  maximal ; 
the  second  class  from  1,400  to  2,800  francs ;  and  the  assistants  from 
1,300  to  2,112  francs.  On  the  other  hand,  the  value  of  veterinary 
science  has  been  from  the  early  days  of  schools  well  acknowledged 
by  the  members  of  the  Academy  and  other  scientific  societies  in 
France,  and  members  of  the  profession  have  taken  no  second  rank 
among  the  scientists  of  France  and  the  world.  At  the  present  day 
the  literary-scientific  horizon  of  France  has  no  more  refulgent  lights 
than  Chauveau,  Toussaint,  Bouley,  Colin,  Megnin,  and  other  mem- 
bers of  the  veterinary  profession." 

The  Yetekinaey  Institute  at  Vienna,  Austria. 

With  the  termination  of  the  school-term  for  1877,  this  institution 
began  a  second  centennial  existence,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  its  pros- 
perity and  usefulness  will  go  on  increasing  as  the  years  pass  on. 
The  school  is  known  as  the  "  Eoyal  Military  Veterinary  Institute  of 
Vienna."  Professor  Dr.  Roell,  its  late  director,  gave  a  complete 
sketch  of  its  history  for  the  first  hundred  years  of  its  existence  in 
the  "  Oesterreichse  Vierteljahrsschrift  fiir  wissenschaftliche  Vete- 
rinarkunde,"  vol.  xlviii ;  to  which  are  added  lithographic  illustra- 
tions of  the  grounds  and  buildings.  This  periodical  (quarterly)  has 
been  issued  by  the  faculty  of  the  institute  since  the  year  1851,  and 
contains  many  articles  of  value.     The  establishment  of  this  school 


THE   VETERINARY    INSTITUTE   AT   VIENNA,   AUSTRIA.  281 

was  preceded  by  tlie  openinp^  of  a  scliool  for  the  treatment  of  the 
diseases  of  the  horse  and  operative  practice  in  17»)4,  with  the  con- 
sent and  support  of  the  Government,  by  an  Italian  named  Luigi 
Scotti,  who,  in  company  with  an  apothecary  named  Meno;mann,  was 
sent  by  Maria  Theresa  to  Lyons  to  study  the  principles  of  veterinary 
medicine.  I)urin<2;  this  visit  to  France  Scotti  received  420  guldens 
each  year  from  the  (xovernnient.  On  their  return  they  presented 
the  Government  with  a  proposal  for  the  erection  of  a  school,  and 
recommended  a  course  of  two  years,  considering  the  study  of 
anatomy  as  the  most  important  subject.  They  recommended  that 
tiie  students  be  taken  from  among  the  experienced  smiths  of  the 
army,  that  could  read  and  write,  and  felt  confident  that  they 
could  make  competent  vetennarians  in  the  time  mentioned.  Ac- 
cording to  their  plan  of  instruction,  general  anatomy,  osteology, 
and  exterior,  were  to  be  taught  in  the  fall,  as  well  as  horse- 
shoeing, upon  which  great  stress  was  laid ;  in  winter,  myology  and 
practice  in  horseshoeing ;  and  in  spring  and  summer,  a  knowledge 
of  the  useful  plants,  their  preparations  and  use.  The  second  year 
was  little  more  than  a  repetition  of  the  first,  with  the  exception 
that  the  students  were  made  acquainted  with  disease  and  its  treat- 
ment by  hospital  practice.  There  were  but  two  teachei-s  attached 
to  the  school,  which  was  opened  January  12,  17G7,  the  whole  being 
under  the  supervision  of  a  military  ofticial,  who  attended  to  the  gen- 
eral order,  cleanliness,  and  deportment  of  the  students.  The  pur- 
pose of  the  school  was  limited  to  the  education  of  better  qualified 
smiths  for  the  army,  and  only  army  horses  were  treated  therein. 
The  students  were  taken  for  the  full  two-years'  course,  and  only  at 
the  exjiiration  of  the  same  were  new  students  taken. 

While  this  horse-school  was  still  in  active  operation,  J.  Gottlieb 
Wolstein,  surgeon,  and  a  selected  military  farrier  by  the  name  of 
Schmid,  were  sent  by  the  Minister  of  War  to  Alfort,  to  carefully 
study  the  principles  and  practice  of  veterinary  medicine  as  there 
taught.  Both  of  them  were  paid  by  the  Government,  as  well  as  hav- 
ing an  allowance  for  the  necessary  expense,  in  return  for  which  they 
were  obliged  to  bind  themselves  for  life  to  serve  the  Government, 
and  on  their  return  "Wolstein  was  named  as  professor  and  Schmid  as 
assistant, 

Schraeder*  says  :  "  Job.  Gottlieb  AVolstein,  Doctor  of  ^ledicinc 
and  Surgery,  was  bom  at  Flinsberg,  in  Silesia,  March  14,  1738, 
and  died  at  Altona,  near  iraml)urg,  July  3,  1820.  lie  at  first  gave 
his  attention  to  the  study  of  surgery  for  nine  years  at  Vienna,  and 

*  Loc.  eil.,  p.  476. 


282  THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF  THE   VETERINARY   SCHOOLS. 

in  1769  was  sent  to  France  by  the  Austrian  Government  to  study 
veterinary  medicine  under  Bourgelat  and  Cbabert,  where  he  at  the 
same  time  studied  human  medicine  in  the  Paris  hospitals,  as  well  as 
taking  an  active  interest  in  the  work  of  Lafosse  between  the  years 
1772-'73.  In  1773  he  visited  London,  and,  on  his  return  to  Austria, 
Denmark,  Mecklenburg,  Holland,  and  in  1779  took  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Medicine  and  Surgery  at  Jena.  The  school  at  Vienna 
bore  witness  to  the  practical  abilities  possessed  by  Wolstein.  In  the 
year  1795  he  received  his  discharge  from  the  Yienna  school,  but  it 
is  not  known  whether  it  was  owing  to  his  free-thinking  tendencies 
(for  he  was  the  first  Protestant  who  received  an  appointment  in  the 
state  service  of  Austria),  or  to  other  circumstances.  Wolstein  was 
a  most  extensive  author,  nearly  all  his  works  bearing  testimony  to 
his  clear-headedness  and  practical  ability.  Among  other  things,  he 
was  the  first  to  establish  the  causal  connection  between  an  accumu- 
lation of  fluids  in  the  lateral  ventricles  of  the  brain  of  the  horse, 
causing  the  condition  known  in  German  as  "  DummkoUer " ; 
French,  "immobilite" ;  Latin,  "amentia."  He  also  wrote  a  book 
upon  the  "  Scientific  Breeding  of  Human  Beings." 

On  his  return  to  Austria  he  gave  the  Government  his  ideas  with 
reference  to  the  formation  of  a  veterinary  school,  and  on  the  23d  of 
July,  1777,  he  received  from  the  Government  13,740  florins  toward 
the  erection  of  the  school ;  and  on  the  26th  of  December,  1877,  the 
Government  issued  the  instructions  for  the  regulation  of  the  school, 
which  was  soon  opened. 

The  personnel  of  the  school  at  this  time  consisted  of  one  pro- 
fessor, one  superior  assistant,  two  assistants,  and  a  number  of  half- 
invalided  soldiers,  necessary  to  the  care  of  the  animals  in  the  hos- 
pital ;  also  one  inspecting  officer,  and  one  farrier.  The  school  and 
hospital  were  placed  under  the  control  of  the  Minister  of  War,  and 
the  supervision  given  to  a  brigadier.  In  the  buildings  were  pro- 
vided lodgings  for  the  teachers  of  the  school,  and  seventy  army 
farriers,  as  students.  To  the  school  belonged  a  botanical  garden, 
an  anatomical  saloon,  a  lecture-room,  dispensary,  laboratory,  and 
library ;  a  smithy  with  four  fires ;  four  stables,  with  room  in  each 
for  seven  horses ;  fifteen  separate  stalls  (probably  boxes),  and  a 
small  stable  for  cattle  and  sheep.  The  instruction  was  divided  as 
follows,  and  extended  for  two  years  : 

Professor  Dr.  Wolstein  lectured  upon  the  theoretical  and  prac- 
tical application  of  the  principles  of  medicine  to  the  diseases  of  the 
horse. 

First  Assistant  Schmid  lectured  upon  horseshoeing,  and  demon- 


THE   VETERINARY    INSTITUTE    AT   VIENNA,   AUSTRIA.  033 

ptrated  and  supervised  operative  surgery,  and  represented  Wolstein 
when  the  latter  was  unable  to  be  present. 

Assistant  Toegl  (1779)  demonstrated  anatomy,  and  Men<^mann 
controlled  the  pharmacy,  and  lectured  upon  medical  botany  and 
pharmacy.  The  military  students  came  either  from  cavalry  regi- 
ments or  were  selected  by  the  school  from  among  young  smitlis  who 
displayed  unusual  ability.  The  students  must  be  under  thirty  years 
of  age,  unmarried,  natives  of  Austria  (Hungary  also  ?),  of  pei-fect 
physi(|ue  and  good  moral  education,  and  be  able  to  read  and  write 
in  the  (rerman  language. 

The  admittance  of  civil  students  was  dependent  upon  the  judg- 
ment of  the  teachers,  who  were  made  responsible  for  the  ability  and 
character  of  the  same. 

P>om  177S  to  1790,  178  military,  137  civil,  and  144  foreign 
students  graduated  at  the  school. 

During  this  period,  4.2<)8  army  horses  were  treated,  of  which 
3,6l)5  recovered,  201  were  discharged  uncured,  and  252  were  killed. 
In  1806  numerous  changes  were  made  in  the  buildings  and  some  in 
the  curriculum,  the  intention  of  the  school  being  to  educate  superior 
and  ordinary  farriers  for  the  army,  '•Kurschmieden  "  (farriers  edu- 
cated in  the  principles  of  medicine),  veterinary  surgeons,  and  ordi- 
nary farriers.  The  course  was  still  continued  at  two  years :  in  the 
tirst  year,  horseshoeing,  anatomy,  pharmaceutical  chemistry,  physi- 
ology, exterior  of  the  horse,  breeding ;  in  the  second  year,  therapeu- 
tics, pharmacology,  and  veterinary  police.  The  military  students 
were  compelled  to  work  from  G  to  11.30  a.  m.  and  from  3  to  0  p.  m. 
in  the  forge.  The  personnel  of  the  school  was  increased  by  a  pro- 
fessor of  pathology  an<l  another  of  anatomy.  The  school  was  lim- 
ited to  forty  military  students — thirty-five  from  the  cavalry  regi- 
ments, and  five  for  the  royal  studs.  In  1809  it  ions  ordered  that 
nil  mriAt  h'  taught  which  hlongs  to  veterinary  medimnt\  and  not 
limited  to  the  horfte  alone.  In  1812  the  school  was  united  with 
the  university  at  Vienna,  the  military  inspection  being  limited  to 
supervision  of  the  military  students.  In  the  year  1823  a  revision 
of  the  school  was  again  undertaken,  which  remained  unchanged 
until  1840,  and  suffered  but  few  modifications  until  1857.  The  aim 
of  the  institute  was  to  give  full  instruction  in  the  principles  of 
veterinary  medicine. 

The  form  of  instruction  was  appointed  to  the  necessities  of  the 
different  kinds  of  students  : 

1.  Common  farriers,  i.  e.,  such  who,  after  completion  of  their 
course,  were  considered  educated  for  the  profession  of  horseshoers. 


284  THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  VETERINARY  SCHOOLS. 

On  tlieir  admittance  they  were  obliged  to  certify  that  they  had 
ah'eady  served  a  practical  apprenticeship,  and  be  able  to  read  and 
write.  The  course  of  study  extended  over  one  year,  during  which 
they  received  instruction  in  the  theories  of  horseshoeing,  and  upon 
the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  horse's  hoof,  the  materia  medica 
and  special  therapy  of  the  horse,  and  were  obliged  to  visit  the  school 
hospital. 

2.  Agriculturists. — The  conditions  of  their  admittance  were  a 
good  knowledge  of  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  and  proof  of 
having  attended  the  necessary  lectures  at  a  public  school  of  agricul- 
ture. The  course  was  limited  to  one  year,  in  which  they  heard  lec- 
tures u^on  the  natural  history  of  the  domestic  animals^  the  j^rinci- 
jples  of  h'eediiig^  the  care  of  the  domestic  animals,  and  u_pon  the 
animal  vests  and  their  prevention. 

3.  Officers.,  Riding-Masters,  and  Masters  of  the  Horse. — Officers 
had  to  be  furnished  with  certificates  of  permission  to  attend  the 
school ;  the  others  with  certificates  of  faithful  performance  of  their 
duties,  and  of  their  ability  to  read  and  write.  The  course  also  lasted 
one  year,  and  was  limited  to  natural  history,  breeding,  equine  hygi- 
ene, theory  of  horseshoeing,  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  horse, 
the  management  of  breeding  studs,  exterior,  and  equine  jurispru- 
dence. 

4.  Future  Physicists  ("  Kiinf tige  Physiker  "),  who  could  only 
become  practitioners  of  the  third,  and  doctors  of  the  second  year's 
course  of  the  medico-surgical  branches.  The  lecturers  were  lim- 
ited to  the  theories  of  animal  plagues  and  veterinary  police  for  one 
session. 

5.  a.  Inspectors  of  Animal  and  Meat  Markets. — On  their  admit- 
tance they  had  to  bring  certificates  of  ability  to  slaughter  well,  and 
be  able  to  read  and  write.  The  course  was  limited  to  twelve  hours, 
during  which  they  received  demonstrations  of  the  chief  parts  of  ani- 
mals used  for  food,  and  of  the  diseases  which  made  them  unfit  for 
that  purpose,  and  lectures  upon  the  laws  and  ordinances  regulating 
such  business. 

b.  Cattle-drovers  and  Shepherds. — The  course  extended  over  two 
months,  and  consisted  of  instruction  in  the  care  and  feeding  of  ani- 
mals, upon  those  things  which  could  incite  disease,  of  their  preven- 
tion, and  upon  the  common  diseases,  and  the  first  principles  of  treat- 
ment necessary  in  case  a  veterinarian  could  not  be  had. 

c.  Hunters. — The  instruction  consisted  of  a  popular  form  of 
education  upon  the  dog  and  its  diseases,  with  especial  reference  to 
rabies. 


THE   VETERINARY   IXSTITl'TE   AT   VIENNA,   AUSTRIA.  285 

6.  ''^Kiu'schiniede''''  {Farriers  icith  author  it  y  to  treat  certain  dis- 
eases of  the  horse). — The  course  was  two  years,  and  all  applicants 
had  to  bring  certificates  of  ability  to  shoo  horses,  and  as  to  their 
having  faithfully  served  their  allotted  time  in  the  army,  and  be  able 
to  read  and  write.  In  the  first  year  they  attended  lectures  upon  the 
elements  of  physics  and  chemistry,  equine  anatomy  and  physiology, 
and  therapeutics  and  materia  mediea ;  in  the  second,  the  special 
pathology  and  therapy  of  equine  diseases,  surgery,  operative  sur- 
gery and  obstetrics,  exterior,  breeding,  forensic  equine  medicine 
and  practice  in  relation  to  the  external  and  internal  diseases  of  the 
horse  ;  further,  anatomy  and  physiology  were  again  repeated. 

Y.  Veterinary  Surgeons. — None  hut  graduated  doctors  or  wound 
doctors  were  admitted.  The  course. also  lasted  two  years  :  the  first 
being  devoted  to  natural  history,  dietetics,  breeding,  hygiene,  anat- 
omy and  physiology  of  the  domestic  animals,  general  patliology  and 
therapeutics ;  the  second  to  special  pathology  and  thera])eutics, 
theoretic  and  operative  surgery,  exterior,  breeding,  forensic  equine 
medicine,  contagious  diseases  and  veterinary  police,  literature  of 
veterinary  medicine,  practical  exercise  in  the  hospitals,  and  repeti- 
tion of  anatomy  and  ]>hysiology. 

The  faculty  consisted  of  five  professors,  receiving  2,000,  1,500, 
1,200,  and  1,000  florins  each,  with  free  lodging  and  other  perqui- 
sites ;  also  four  assistants,  receiving  700,  GOO,  500,  and  400  florins. 

On  the  ITth  of  November,  182.3,  the  corner-stone  of  the  new 
school  was  laid  with  appropriate  ceremonies,  and  in  the  presence  of 
many  of  the  nobility  and  noted  personages.  In  this  year  the  com- 
mencement of  a  library  was  begun  in  earnest  by  an  appropriation  of 
three  thousand  florins,  but  at  the  present  day  a  yearly  sum  is  appro- 
priated to  the  purpose.  In  the  year  1835  an  institution  for  experi- 
ments with  reference  to  the  variola  of  sheep  was  added  to  the  in- 
stitution and  continued  until  18G4.  In  the  year  ISJf!)  the  institution 
was  separated  from  the  university.,  and  has  since  remained  indejyetv- 
denty  sidject  to  the  control  of  the  Ministry  of  ^Yar.  In  1871  the  cur- 
riculum again  suffered  revision,  and  wa.s  placed  in  its  present  form ; 
the  purpose  of  the  school  being  to  educate  civil  and  military  vet- 
erinarians, and  also  civil  and  military  horseshoers  j  aside  from 
this  it  jnust  do  its  vtmost  to  forward  I'eterinary  science,  and  is  the 
highest  technical  authority  with  reference  to  contagious  animal  dis- 
eases and  thiir  suppression.  The  director  also  acts  as  adviser  in  all 
things  with  reference  to  the  military  veterinary  institutions  at  the 
Ministry  of  V^at.  The  guidance  of  the  school  is  dependent  upon 
the  director  and  the  military  supervisor.     The  latter  is  directly  sub- 


286  THE  ESTABLISHMENT   OF  THE   VETERINARY   SCHOOLS. 

servient  to  the  Minister  of  War,  and  conducts  tlie  institute  in  its  re- 
lation to  the  military  organization,  supervising  the  internal  arrange- 
ments and  the  discipline  of  the  servants  and  students.  The  director 
controls  the  scientific-technical  parts  of  the  institution.  The  teach- 
ers are  represented  by  professors,  docents,  adjuncts,  assistants,  and 
a  teacher  of  horseshoeing.  The  number  of  professors  is  limited  to 
six,  one  of  whom  is  director.  The  subjects  taught  are  as  follow, 
divided  among  the  following  professors  and  assistants  : 

Director  (1877),  Moriz  F.  Eoell,*  and  Lecturer  upon  Animal 
Pests,  their  Causes  and  Prevention ;  also  Conductor  of  the  Inner 
Clinic. 

Professor  Franz  Miiller,  Lecturer  on  Zootomj',  the  Theories  of 
Shoeing,  Exterior,  and  Conductor  of  the  Dog  Hospital. 

Professor  Andreas  Briickmiiller  (recently  deceased).  Lecturer  on 
Breeding,  Obstetrics,  and  Zoophysiology.  Professor  Briickmiiller 
is  the  author  of  the  only  text-book  extant  on  "  Animal  Pathological 
Anatomy,"  which  is  too  largely  founded  upon  Pokitansky  to  be  un- 
critically followed  at  the  present  day,  however. 

Professor  Franz  August  Armbrecht,  Lecturer  on  Yeterinary 
Surgery  and  Operative  Surgery,  and  Conductor  of  the  Surgical 
Clinic. 

Professor  Leopold  Forster,  Lecturer  on  Special  Pathology  and 
Therapeutics,  Pharmacology,  Pharmacognosy,  Botany,  Instruments 
and  Bandages,  their  Uses  and  Application. 

Professor  Franz  Zahn,  Lecturer  on  General  Pathology,  Patho- 
logical Zootomy,  and  Forensic  Medicine. 

The  lectures  in  Chemistry  are  delivered  by  Professor  Dr.  I. 
Moser,  of  the  Agricultural  Academy. 

Adjujicts. — Max  von  Paumgartten,  Assistant  Lecturer  on  Zo- 
otomy, Exterior,  and  Theoretic  Horseshoeing. 

Eaimund  Koezil,  Assistant  Lecturer  on  Path.-Zootomy,  Forensic 
Medicine,  and  Cattle  and  Meat  Inspection. 

Franz  Konhauser,  Assistant  in  the  Medical  Clinic,  and  Teach- 
er of  Special  Pathology  and  Therapeutics. 

Josef  Bayer,  Assistant  in  the  Surgical  Clinic,  and  Teacher  of 
Veterinary  Surgery  and  Operations;  also  Lecturer  on  Yeterinary 
Literature  and  History. 

Johann  Csokor,  Assistant-Lecturer  on  Breeding  and  Zoophysi- 
ology. 

Assistants. — J.  P.  von  Froschauer,  to  the  Medical  Chnic. 

Josef  Stengel,  to  the  Surgical  Clinic. 

*  Since  retired  and  pensioned. 


THE   VETERINARY   INSTITUTE   AT   VIENNA,   AUSTRIA. 


287 


Franz  Wildner,  on  Descriptive  and  Patholof^ieal  ZoOtomy. 

Over-Vcterinariaii  F.  Scliuller,  Teacher  of  Horseshoeing. 

Inspecting  Veterinarians. — Ferdinand  AVicher,  for  the  Hospitals. 

Anton  Janich,  for  Horseshoeing. 

Accountants. — Franz  Miihhi,  Superior. 

Heinrich  Liizlo,  Assistant. 

Other  Perfions. — One  gardener,  two  otficial  servants,  one  porter, 
three  saloon-servants,  one  apothecary's  servant,  one  watchman,  two 
drivers,  three  smiths  in  forge,  three  corporals,  and  forty-one  soldiers 
as  servants  in  the  stables. 

The  ground  of  the  school  covers  a  territory  of  42,514  square 
metres.  It  is  ])lentifully  supplied  with  fresh  water.  The  stables 
contain  room  for  eighty  horses,  besides  twenty-two  boxes,  with  grain 
magazines,  rooms,  and  all  necessary  appurtenances.  There  is  also  a 
stable  for  fourteen  cattle,  and  the  dog-hospital  is  fitted  up  with 
cages  for  forty -four  dogs.  There  is  also  a  quarantine-stable  for  the 
isolation  of  suspected  or  diseased  animals,  with  five  boxes.  The 
school  has  a  tine  botanical  garden,  lecture-room,  laboratories,  muse- 
ums, forge,  grazing-ground,  and  everything  necessary  to  such  an  in- 
stitution. The  number  of  works  in  the  library  is  4,132,  or  9,030 
volumes,  six  to  seven  hundred  florins  being  allowed  for  its  repletion 
each  year.  The  books  are  all  arranged,  according  to  the  subjects 
treated,  upon  appropriate  shelves. 

At  the  end  of  the  year  187G  the  anatomical  museum  contained : 


Stuffed  mammalia  and  monstrosities 160  spec 

"       birds 59 

Skeletons :  Mammalia 100 

Birds 62  ' 

Amphibia  and  reptiles 10  ' 

Fishes 1)  ' 

Individual  bony  specimens 3CG  ' 

Teeth 428 

Lipaments,  cartilage,  and  muscle  preparations 95  ' 

Intestines 156  ' 

Nerves 27  ' 

Blood- vessels IGO  ' 

Lymphatics 8  ' 

Monstrosities  in  spirit 110  ' 

Embryos 129 

Varia 115 


Total 2,084 


The  pathological  museum  contains  2,762  specimens.     The  col- 


288  THE  ESTABLISHMEXT   OF  THE  VETERINARY  SCHOOLS. 

lection  of  surgical  instruments  is  very  complete,  224  new  ones  being 
added  to  it  in  the  last  twenty  years. 

The  collection  of  herbs,  minerals,  etc.,  used  in  medicine,  and  all 
other  appurtenances  of  a  school  of  like  nature,  are  kept  full  and  in 
perfect  order. 

During  the  years  between  1823  and  1877,  100,558  animals  (of 
these  87,436  recovered,  8,787  died,  and  4,281  were  killed),  with  the 
exception  of  dogs,  were  treated  at  the  school,  being  1,845  for  each 
year. 

From  1857  to  1877,  20,241  dogs  were  treated  in  the  dog-hos- 
pital, of  which  14,023  recovered,  4,725  died,  and  1,463  were  killed. 

The  Students. — The  students  belong  either  to  the  civil  or  mili- 
tary professions.  The  first  are  either  students  of  veterinary  medi- 
cine ])er  se,  or  of  horseshoeing.  IS^either  the  Minister  of  War  nor 
his  representative,  the  military  supervisor,  exercises  any  control  over 
them,  they  being  subjected  to  the  control  of  the  directors,  and  all 
regulations  concerning  them  emanate  from  the  "  cultus  "  minister. 
The  conditions  for  admittance  are  : 

1.  At  the  military  veterinary  school  the  students  are  educated 
in  the  entire  principles  of  veterinary  medicine. 

2.  "Whoever  intends  to  become  a  student  must  subject  himself 
to  a  matriculatory  examination.  This  examination  is  not  required 
of  students  that  are  graduates  of  the  sixth  class  in  a  "  gymnasial " 
or  "  real "  school. 

(The  matriculatory  examination  is  limited  to  the  following  sub- 
jects :  German  language,  physics,  chemistry,  natural  jiistory,  geog- 
raphy, history,  and  algebra.) 

In  the  German  language  the  student  must  write  an  essay  in 
good,  clear  orthography  and  good  grammar,  upon  a  subject  of  nat- 
ural history. 

Physics. — He  must  explain  and  demonstrate  npon  instruments 
the  ordinary  phenomena. 

Chemistry. — The  elements  of  inorganic  and  organic  chemistry, 
with  simple  tests. 

Natwal  History. — General  knowledge  of  the  classification  of 
the  three  kingdoms. 

Geography. — Physical  geography  in  general,  and  the  climatical 
and  geographical  conditions  of  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  a  special 
knowledge  of  Central  Europe,  and  Austria  in  particular. 

History. — A  knowledge  of  the  chief  historical  events  of  the 
world  at  large,  and  Austria  in  special. 

Algebra. — Elementary. 


THE   VETERINARY    INSTITUTE   AT    VIENNA,   AUSTRIA.  OgQ 

This  exiuniiuitiun  takes  place  in  the  first  week  of  October  of 
each  year  by  a  special  commission  named  by  the  ''  cultus  "  minister, 
three  members  being  professors  of  the  school,  and  one  each  repre- 
senting a  gymnasium  and  real  school.  The  examination  costs  five 
guldens,  and  goes  to  the  examiners.  Students  must  not  be  over 
twenty-six  or  under  eighteen  years  of  age ;  consideration  is  some- 
times taken  in  case  of  students  whose  studies  have  been  uninten- 
tionally interrupted  in  a  scientific  or  agricultural  academy.  The 
course  extends  over  three  years,  of  two  sessions  each,  as  follows  : 

First  Tea?'  {First  Session). — Introduction  to  the  study  of  veter- 
inary medicine  for  two  weeks,  three  hours  each  week  ;  zootomy  of 
all  domestic  animals,  weekly,  five  hours;  general  chemistry,  weekly, 
three  hours ;  breeding,  weekly,  three  hours ;  theoretic  horseshoe- 
ing, weekly,  two  houi-s  ;  dissection  and  practical  horseshoeing,  ar- 
ranged in  the  hours  not  taken  up  by  other  branches. 

{Second  Sessio)i.) — Topographical  zootomy,  weekly,  five  hours  ; 
organic  chemistry,  with  especial  reference  to  physiological  and 
pathologiciil  chemistry,  weekly,  three  hours ;  breeding,  five  hours ; 
medicinal  botany,  weekly,  two  hours  ;  dissection  and  practical  horse- 
shoeing, as  before. 

Second  Year  {Third  Session). — General  pathology  and  patho- 
logical anatomy,  weekly,  three  hours ;  physiology  with  microscop- 
ical practice,  weekly,  two  hours ;  pharmacognosy,  materia  medica, 
and  art  of  writing  prescriptions,  weekly,  three  hours ;  clinic,  daily ; 
dissection,  and  the  preparation  of  two  anatomical  subjects,  in  hours 
to  be  fixed  at  convenience  ;  autopsies  ;  practical  horseshoeing. 

{Fourth  Session.) — Pathological  zootomy,  weekly,  three  hours  ; 
physiology,  with  microsco])ical  practice,  weekly,  two  hours  ;  ob- 
stetrics, weekly,  two  hours ;  theoretic  use  of  instruments  and  band- 
ages, weekly,  two  hours ;  clinic,  daily ;  autopsies ;  practice  in  chem- 
ical laboratory ;  horseshoeing. 

Third  Year  {Fifth  Session). — Medical  and  surgical  clinic,  daily ; 
special  pathology  and  therapeutics,  weekly,  three  hours ;  veterinary 
surger}',  weekly,  two  hours ;  practice  in  operative  surgery,  weekly, 
three  hours ;  exercise  in  making  reports  of  forensic  cases  and  in 
reference  to  veterinary  police ;  animal  pests  and  veterinary  police, 
weekly,  three  hours  ;  cattle  and  meat  inspection,  weekly,  one  hour ; 
horseshoeing. 

{Sixth  Session.) — Clinics,  and  other  branches  as  before  ;  history 
of  veterinary  medicine,  weekly,  one  hour  ;  horseshoeing. 

The  school  also  has  a  special  course  of  two  years  for  medical  men 
and  wound-doctors. 

19 


290  THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  VETERINARY  SCHOOLS. 

The  Examinations. — The  examination  takes  place  at  the  end  of 
each  year  in  the  subjects  which  have  been  lectured  upon  or  demon- 
strated. The  results  are  designated  as  "  excellent  "  ("  sehr  gut "  *), 
"  good,"  and  "  middling."  Students  who  have  received  the  last 
censor  may  apply  for  a  second  examination,  but  those  who  have  re- 
ceived it  in  two  or  more  branches  are  obliged  to  repeat  the  full 
course  for  the  completed  year. 

The  professors  are  free  to  make  examinations  on  any  subjects 
during  the  session. 

Students  who  desire  the  state  diploma  as  veterinarians  must, 
among  other  things,  make  an  autopsy  and  correctly  dictate  the  re- 
sults ;  also  prepare  certain  anatomical  specimens,  and  give  in  to  the 
appropriate  professor  certain  written  documents  upon  cases  in  con- 
nection with  forensic  medicine  and  veterinary  police. 

Aside  from  this,  the  final  examination  consists  in  the  student 
attending  a  selected  patient  (a  tough  case  selected  by  the  teacher)  in 
both  the  internal  and  surgical  clinic  for  three  days,  of  which  the 
student  has  to  make,  unaided,  the  diagnosis,  and  attend  to  and  direct 
the  treatment,  and  write  a  full  description  of  the  case,  its  history, 
treatment,  and  prognosis.  Further,  he  must  make  several  surgical 
operations  upon  a  living  animal,  and  demonstrate  a  subject  in  anatomy. 

The  partial  examinations  take  place  under  the  special  professor 
in  each  branch,  with  changes  of  professors,  the  last  examination  in 
the  presence  of  the  whole  examining  body.  All  members  of  the 
examining  commissions  are  free  to  ask  of  the  candidate  any  ques- 
tions they  please  in  connection  with  veterinary  medicine  or  its  col- 
lateral branches.  The  examining  commission  consists  of  the  pro- 
fessors and  a  person  named  by  the  Minister  of  the  Interior.  If  a 
candidate  has  failed  in  one  part  of  his  examination,  he  may  again 
present  himself  at  a  time  fixed  by  the  commission,  which  can  never 
be  in  less  than  three  months.  If  he  has  failed  in  two  divisions  of  the 
examination,  he  must  be  examined  again  in  all  parts  of  his  studies,  but 
never  in  less  than  six  months.  The  final  examination  costs  fifty-four 
florins.  Foreigners  are  admitted  by  the  consent  of  the  direction,  and 
have  a  right  to  an  examination  for  a  diploma,  hut  not  to  jpractice  in 
Austria  when  not  naturalised  citizens.  Foreigners  have  to  pay 
twenty  guldens  fee  for  each  session  before  it  begins.  Single  courses 
of  lectures  may  be  arranged  with  the  director.  Certain  rules  of 
conduct  must  be  observed. 

*  The  German  "  sehr  gut ''  is  not  correctly  interpreted  by  the  English  "  very  good" 
it  being  spoken  with  a  peculiar  emphasis,  and  used  only  in  a  sense  of  the  English  "  ex- 
cellent." 


VETERINARY   SCHOOLS  OF   HFLCHM,   Rr>^SIA,   SWEDEN,   ETC.     291 

Some  fifteen  years  ago  the  scliool  at  Vienna  enjoyed  a  very  high 
reputation  in  Europe.  BriiekniuUer  was  then  a  first-ehass  authority. 
IloL'll  hud  made  himself  famous  by  his  clinical  ability,  especially 
with  reference  to  jmlmonary  disease,  and  is  accredited  with  being 
the  first  to  systematically  introduce  auscultation  and  percussion  of 
the  chest  into  veterinary  practice ;  but  all  things  must  fade:  the  pro- 
fessors have  grown  old  and  lost  some  of  their  youthful  energy,  and  at 
present  their  places  have  not  been  filled  by  "young  blood,"  so  that 
this  once  famous  school  is  in  a  sort  of  semi-torpid  condition.  Nearly 
all  schools  of  medicine  and  science  have  to  undergo  these  changes,  so 
that  we  may  be  sure  that  the  Vienna  school  will  ere  long  assume  its 
old  rank  among  the  bright  sisterhood  of  European  veterinary  in- 
stitutes. 

Short  Notices  of  the  Veterinary   Schools  at  Brussels,  Bel- 
gium, AND  those  of  Russia,  Sweden,  and  Norway. 

The  small  kingdom  of  Belgium  was  by  no  means  to  be  outdone 
by  her  larger  sisters,  and  ranks  high  among  the  Continental  nations 
in  reference  to  its  veterinary  institutions.  The  Royal  Veterinary 
School  was  instituted  in  1832,  but  not  organized  until  1835,  and  is 
situated  in  the  environs  of  Brussels ;  one  of  the  streets  bounding 
it  on  one  side  is  named  after  Brogniez,  one  of  its  most  distin- 
guished professors,  who  added  many  valuable  instruments  to  the 
veterinary  cabinet.  Among  other  noted  professors  who  have  been 
attached  to  this  school  we  find  the  names  of  Thiernesse,  AVehenkel, 
and  Dupont ;  and,  among  the  practitioners,  Willems,  the  introducer 
of  inoculation  as  a  prophylactic  against  pleuro-pneumonia  in  cattle. 
The  Bnissels  school  is  modeled  after  those  of  France ;  the  fee  for  the 
regular  students  (eleves  internes)  is  fixed  at  TOO  francs  per  year. 
The  preliminary  education  denuinded  of  students  is  higher  than  in 
France,  the  consent  of  the  minister  being  necessary  to  their  admit- 
tance. !Many  young  men  study  the  natural  sciences  at  this  school, 
who  intend  studying  medicine  at  the  university,  thereby  enjoying 
the  advantages  of  the  "  inteniat."  The  number  of  teachei-s  is  larger 
than  at  the  French  schools,  there  being  eight  professors  and  four 
assistants.  The  number  of  lectures  is  also  greater.  There  are  two 
examinations — one  at  the  end  of  the  first  two  years,  and  the  other  at 
the  completion  of  the  course,  which  extends  over  four  years.  The 
hospital  has  room  for  about  thirty  horses,  each  one  paying  a  fee  of 
two  francs  daily.  The  school  has  a  visiting  clinic,  but  no  school 
conveyance,  the  visits  being  made,  however,  at  the  expense  of  the  in- 
stitution.    Three  horses  are  weekly  used  for  anatomical  and  opera- 


292  THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF  THE   VETERINARY   SCHOOLS. 

tive  practice  by  the  students,  and  one  for  the  anatomical  teacher ; 
they  cost  some  eighty  francs  each  ;  about  eighty  animals  are  used 
in  this  way  each  year.  The  anatomical  museum  is  very  rich  in 
specimens,  and  they  are  better  arranged  than  at  Alfort. 

The  four-year  course  is  arranged  as  follows : 

First  Session. — Anatomy,  dissection,  physics,  botany. 

Second  Session. — Botany,  physics,  repetition  in  anatomy,  and 
the  two  foiTner  subjects. 

Third  Session. — Anatomy,  dissection,  physics,  chemistry,  with 
reviewings  upon  the  two  latter. 

Fotirth  Session. — Anatomy  of  the  domestic  animals  aside  from 
the  horse ;  physics,  histology,  chemistry,  horseshoeing. 

Fifth  Session. — Clinic,  pharmacy,  general  and  special  pathology, 
anatomy,  operative  surgery,  therapeutics  and  materia  medica ;  the- 
ory and  practice  of  horseshoeing. 

Sixth  Session. — Clinic,  general  and  special  pathology,  anatomy, 
pathological  anatomy,  therapeutics  and  materia  medica,  pharmacy, 
with  practice,  operative  surgery,  horseshoeing. 

Seventh  Session. — Clinic,  surgical  pathology,  horseshoeing,  breed- 
ing, topographic  anatomy,  operative  surgery  (theoretical  and  practi- 
cal), pharmaceutical  practice,  forensic  medicine,  and  sanitary  po- 
lice. 

Eighth  Session. — Clinic,  surgical  pathology,  breeding,  obstetrics, 
meat-inspection,  pharmacy,  horseshoeing.  Numerous  repetitions  or 
reviewings  of  each  branch  of  study  take  place  during  each  session. 

The  regulations  for  the  control  of  the  Government  veterinary 
officials  are  about  as  follows — I  say  "about,"  for  they  are  taken 
from  the  law  of  1851,  and  some  changes  may  have  since  been 
made: 

Article  1.  According  to  the  requirements,  there  shall  be  one 
or  more  Government  veterinarians  in  each  agricultural  district. 

These  veterinarians  are  named  by  the  Minister  of  the  Interior, 
on  the  proposal  of  the  permanent  deputation  of  the  provincial  coun- 
cil, and  the  agricultural  commission  ;  the  minister  fixes  their  residence, 
and  the  territory  over  which  they  shall  exert  control. 

Art.  2.  The  Government  veterinarians  are  generally  selected 
from  among  those  who  have  passed  an  especially  satisfactory  exami- 
nation at  the  school. 

Akt.  3.  Each  appointment  is  at  first  made  provisory  for  a 
period  of  tliree  years,  and  only  at  the  end  of  this  term  can  the  ap- 
pointment become  permanent. 

Abt.  4.  In  those  districts  where  the  rewards  of  practice  are  in- 


VETERINARY   SCDOOLS  OF   BELlilUM,   RUSSIA,   SWEDEN,   ETC.      293 

sufficient,  the  minister  may  allow  the  veterinary  official  a  support 
whicli  shall  not  exceed  three  hundred  francs  yearly,  in  addition  to 
that  allowed  by  the  local  authorities. 

Art.  5.  The  duties  of  the  Government  veterinarians  are  :  1.  To 
exert  a  careful  supervision  of  the  hygienic  conditions  uf  the  animals 
in  their  district.  2.  To  watch  over  the  healthy  condition  of  the  stal- 
lions used  for  breeding,  and  to  see  that  they  arc  adapted  to  the  pro- 
vincial regulations  for  the  improvement  of  stock,  3.  They  must 
carefully  investigate  all  animals  in  their  district  with  reference  to 
contagious  or  infectious  diseases.  4.  At  the  requisition  of  the  gov- 
enior  of  their  province,  they  must  visit  public  markets  and  fairs  and 
watch  over  the  health  of  the  animals. 

Art.  G.  Such  veterinarians  as  are  members  of  the  provincial 
agricultural  commission  control,  when  required  by  the  governor  or 
Bald  commission,  the  official  duties  of  the  other  Government  veteri- 
narians of  the  province. 

Art.  7.  It  is  their  duty  to  notify  the  commissioner  of  the  "ar- 
rondissements,"  and  the  members  of  the  agricultural  commission,  of 
the  presence  of  contagio-infectious  diseases  in  their  province.  The 
governor  of  the  province  receives  his  notification  from  the  above- 
named  officials.  In  important  cases  the  Minister  of  the  Interior  is 
also  to  be  notified  by  the  General  Inspector  of  Hygiene,  who  is 
notified  directly  by  the  veterinary  official. 

Art.  8.  The  Government  veterinarians  are  also  obliged  to  ob- 
serve the  conditions  of  agriculture  in  their  respective  districts,  so  far 
as  their  other  duties  will  permit  of,  and  to  make  reports  to  the  Min- 
ister of  the  Interior, 

Art.  0.  These  officials  must  make  official  returns  within  the 
first  ten  days  of  each  quarter  to  the  governor  of  the  ]>rf»vince,  with 
reference  to  each  case  of  an  infectious  or  contagious  animal  disease 
that  has  taken  place  during  the  past  quarter  in  their  district,  and 
also  with  reference  to  all  other  facts  which  are  of  importance  to  the 
Government.  These  reports  are  collected  by  the  Provincial  Agri- 
cultural Commission,  and  sent  by  them  to  the  governor,  whr»  in  his 
turn  sends  them  to  the  minister.  The  General  Inspector  of  Public 
Hygiene  must  return  a  yearly  report  of  all  cases  of  contagious  ani- 
mal diseases  which  have  occurred  in  the  kingdom. 

Art.  10.  The  Government  veterinarians  liave  exclusively  the 
control  of  the  infectious  animal  diseases,  and  must  always  be  called 
upon  to  make  such  examination  by  the  higher  officers  of  the  Gov- 
ernment, 

Art.  13.  Such  officials  can  only  order  the  peremptory  killing  of 


294  THE   ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  VETERINARY  SCHOOLS. 

an  animal  when  it  is  affected  to  an  incurable  (?)  degree  with  the 
following  diseases : 

Horses. — Glanders. 

Cattle. — Anthrax,  rinderpest,  and  plenro-pneumonia. 

Sheejp. — Yariola,  and  in  all  animals  when  complicated  with  rabies. 

The  rank  and  advancement  of  veterinarians  in  the  Belgian  army 
are  as  follow : 

The  veterinary  inspectors  rank  as  major;  the  first-class  veteri- 
narians as  captain ;  the  second-class  veterinarians  as  first  lieuten- 
ant ;  the  third-class  veterinarians  as  second  lieutenant. 

In  order  to  become  a  third-class  veterinarian,  the  applicant  must 
have  graduated  well  for  a  civil  veterinarian ;  must  be  twenty-four 
years  of  age,  and  a  citizen,  or  naturalized.  No  one  can  become 
second  class  without  having  served  creditably  in  the  third  for  at 
least  two  years.  To  become  first  class,  he  must  have  served  in  the 
second  for  at  least  two  years  to  the  same  degree.  As  inspectors, 
three  years'  first-class  service  is  necessary.  To  be  first  or  second 
class,  the  applicant  must  also  stand  a  practical  examination.  The 
inspectors  are  appointed  by  the  king.  Yeterinarians  of  all  grades 
receive,  after  ten  years'  active  service,  one  fifth  more  pension  than 
army  oflBcers  having  a  corresponding  rank. 

Russia.'^ 

We  are  somewhat  inclined  to  look  upon  the  Russians  as  a  sort  of 
lialf-civilized  people,  but  the  reverse  is  much  more  near  to  the  truth, 
at  least  so  far  as  it  has  reference  to  the  support  given  by  the  Govern- 
ment to  the  advancement  of  science.  In  no  way  is  this  more  true 
than  in  relation  to  veterinary  science,  the  need  of  which  made  itself 
apparent  very  early  in  this  century,  on  account  of  the  wealth  of  the 
nation  in  domestic  animals,  especially  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep.  As 
should  be  known  to  every  one,  rinderpest,  the  most  terrible  and 
devastating  of  all  animal  plagues,  makes  its  home  upon  the  steppes 
of  Southern  Russia,  causing  yearly  a  loss  of  thousands  of  cattle,  and 
frequently  extending  its  ravages  to  neighboring  countries.  In  1877 
the  official  returns  of  the  losses  caused  by  rinderpest  are  given  as 
217,768  cattle  and  1,884  sheep;  and  the  same  authority  gives  as  the 
number  of  cattle  in  the  empire,  25,918,600  :  the  loss  from  this  cause 
amounting,  therefore,  to  0'82  per  cent. 

Russia  has  three  veterinary  institutes,  one  each  at  Kharkov,  Dor- 
pat,  and  Kazan,  all  supported  and  regulated  by  the  Government ;  the 
degrees  given  are  doctor  and  magistrate  of  veterinary  science.     The 

*  Miiller,  "  Russische  Veterinar  Institut  Magazin,"  vol.  xxx. 


VETERINARY  SCHOOLS  OF  BELGIUM,   RUSSIA,   SWEDEN,   ETC.      295 

regulations  for  these  schools  suffered  a  complete  reorganization  soon 
after  the  veterinary  congress  at  Frankfort  in  the  year  1872,  the  aim 
of  the  Government  being  to  make  them  second  to  none  in  Europe 
from  a  truly  sclent Ijic  poiiit  of  view.  The  new  regulations  bear 
date  May  8,  1873.  The  schools  are  subjected  to  the  control  of  the 
cultus  minister  in  the  tirst  place,  and  directly  under  the  curator  of 
the  educational  district  in  which  they  are  situated.  The  immediate 
direction,  however,  consists  of  the  director  and  council  of  the 
school.  At  each  institute  there  are  three  regular,  one  extra  profess- 
or, four  docents ;  of  the  last,  one  for  pharmacy,  one  for  agriculture, 
one  prosector  who  is  also  a  docent,  and  an  extra  prosector  and  a 
teacher  of  horseshoeing,  with  various  assistant  teachers.  The  direct- 
or receives,  aside  from  a  free  residence,  3,300  silver  rubles  yearly ; 
the  regular  professors,  3,000  ;  the  extra,  2,000 ;  the  docents  and  pro- 
sectors, 1,200 ;  the  assistants,  700 ;  and  the  teacher  of  horseshoeing 
the  same,  with  residence.  The  director,  professors,  docents,  and 
prosectors  must  all  have  the  qualification  of  a  magistrate  of  veteri- 
nary science.  The  docents  of  pharmacy  and  agriculture  must  like- 
wise be  of  the  same  grade  in  their  respective  branches,  but  the 
teacher  of  horseshoeing  may  have  only  the  ordinary  veterinary 
diploma.  Private  docents  are  also  permitted  to  lecture  upon  any 
branch  of  veterinary  science  which  they  may  select.  To  these  last  the 
qualification  of  doctor  of  veterinary  medicine  is  necessary,  but  each 
aspirant  must  write  an  essay  upon  a  selected  subject,  which  must  be 
publicly  defended,  and  also  stand  two  test-examinations  upon  themes 
selected  by  the  council  of  the  institute.  The  private  docents  have 
no  certain  pay,  but  the  same  is  regulated  by  the  council,  and  they 
have  before  them  the  privilcije  of  adding  to  their  education  bv  study 
in  foreign  countries  at  the  Government's  expense.  The  natural 
sciences — mineralogy,  botany,  zoology,  comparative  anatomy  (not  zo- 
otomy), physics,  physical  geography,  and  chemistry — are  taught  at 
the  schools  l)y  special  professors,  aj^pointed  for  the  })urpose  from 
the  university.  The  students  also  receive  lectures  upon  religion  on 
appointed  days.  A  high  grade  of  preliminary  education  is  demand- 
ed of  the  students.  The  course  is  extended  over  four  years.  Three 
thousand  silver  rubles  are  at  the  disposal  of  the  council  for  each 
school,  as  stipends  for  desirable  students.  The  general  censors  are 
excellent  and  satisfactory,  which  give  the  student  the  diploma  of 
doctor,  but  in  case  of  extraordinary  ability  the  council  may  give  the 
diploma  of  magistrate  of  veterinary  medicine.  A  foreigner  may 
also  obtain  them  by  standing  the  same  examination.  The  director 
also  possesses  the  grade  and  rights  of  a  dean  of  a  university,  while 


296  THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF  THE  VETERINARY   SCHOOLS. 

the  professors,  docents,  and  prosectors  rank  with  those  of  the  uni- 
versities. The  teachers  are  appointed  by  the  council  from  can- 
didates who  have  distinguished  themselves  in  scientific  research,  but 
must  also  demonstrate  that  they  have  the  gifts  necessary  to  becom- 
ing proficient  teachers.  The  allowance  for  each  veterinary  institute, 
to  pay  the  teachers,  and  other  educational  expenses,  is  yearly  35,700 
silver  rubles.  To  each  institute  is  added  a  school  for  veterinary 
assistants,  the  course  being  three  years,  and  is  limited  to  practical  in- 
struction by  the  teacher  of  horseshoeing,  two  clinical  assistants,  a 
pharmaceutical  assistant,  and  special  teachers  appointed  for  the  pur- 
pose. 

Organization  of  the  Royal  Veterinary  College  at  Copenhagen^ 

Denmark!^ 

The  Royal  Danish  Veterinary  School  was  founded  in  1773  by 
the  talented  veterinarian  Alildgaard;  it  was  again  reorganized  in 
1858,  and  changed  to  a  royal  veterinary  and  agricultural  high 
school,  and  removed  to  the  suburbs  of  Copenhagen.  By  this  ar- 
rangement, veterinary  instruction  can  be  directly  carried  out  at  one 
school,  and  in  it  are  also  taught  agriculturists,  surveyors,  gardeners, 
and  foresters,  though  the  education  of  the  latter  is  chiefly  theo- 
retical. Owing  to  the  number  of  departments  or  sections  in  the 
school,  there  is  a  better  opportunity  for  more  classes,  and  par- 
ticularly for  special  instruction  of  each  class  in  its  own  branch  of 
study. 

This  school  is  under  the  control  of  the  Minister  of  the  Interior, 
and  is  presided  over  by  a  director,  who  does  not  teach,  but  who  is  a 
member  of  the  Privy  Council.  The  present  director  is  Dr.  C.  E. 
Fenger.  An  agriculturist  is  also  connected  with  the  school  as  as- 
sociate director. 

The  number  of  teachers  is  eighteen,  ten  of  whom  are  appointed 
by  the  Government  for  duty  only  in  the  school ;  the  other  eight 
belong,  more  or  less,  to  the  university,  the  polytechnic,  and  other 
schools.  The  assistants  are  in  addition  engaged  in  teaching  the 
various  sections,  and  there  is  also  a  pharmaceutist  in  the  dispensary. 
The  following  are  the  branches  taught  the  veterinary  student : 

Anatomy,  including  dissection  and  physiology,  by  Dr.  Bendz. 

Internal  pathology  and  clinical  instruction,  by  Professor  Bagge. 

Chemistry  and  pharmacy,  by  Professor  Barfaed. 

Exterior  zoutechny,  hygiene,  and  theoretic  farriery,  by  Professor 
Prosch. 

*  "Veterinary  Journal,"  ii,  p.  123. 


VETERINARY   SCHOOLS   OF   BELUIUM,   RUSSIA,   SWEDEN,   ETC.      297 

Operative  surgery,  obstetrics,  and  surgical  clinics,  by  Professor 
Stocktleth. 

Botany,  by  Professor  Langs. 

Physics  and  meteorology,  by  Assistant  Fjord. 

Zoology,  by  Professor  Scliiodte. 

Veterinary  jurisprudence,  by  Assistant  Bay. 

Practical  farriery,  by  Assistant  Green. 

The  avera-re  number  of  students  attendinf;  the  school  since  1858 
has  been  yearly  about  two  hundred  and  fifty,  being  mostly  veterina- 
ry and  agricultural  students.  The  students  nnist  provide  their  own 
maintenance  and  lodging.  A  free  education  and  scholarship  can  be 
obtained  if  the  student  enters  his  name ;  moreover,  it  is  necessary 
that  he  has  received  a  certain  specified  general  education,  which  is 
considerably  less  than  is  required  for  matriculation  at  the  univer- 
sity.    Latin  is  not  required. 

The  scholastic  year  commences  on  the  23d  of  August,  the  annual 
period  of  instruction  consisting  of  two  sessions  of  six  months  each. 
Although  the  student  is  at  liberty  in  the  matter  of  attending  lect- 
ures, yet  the  instruction  is  so  arranged  that  these  may  occupy  a  pe- 
riod of  six  sessions ;  as  a  rule,  the  period  of  study  is  four  years 
if  the  following  plan  is  pursued  : 

First  Session. — Physics  and  meteorology,  six  hours  per  week ; 
inorganic  chemistry,  four  hours  ditto ;  zoology,  four  to  six  hours 
ditto  ;  shoeing  practice,  twelve  hours  ditto. 

Second  Scs.fion. — Physics  and  meteorology,  two  to  three  hours 
per  week  for  the  first  two  months ;  organic  chemistry,  three  to  four 
hours ;  botany,  two  to  five  hours ;  anatomy  and  physiology,  five 
hours;  zootechny,  five  hours;  practical  botany,  one  hour;  practical 
farriery,  twelve  hours  ;  practical  grooming,  twelve  hours  a  week  for 
a  month  ;  clinic,  twelve  hours  per  week. 

Third  Session. — Botany,  seven  hours  per  week  for  a  month; 
anatomy  and  physiology,  five  hours  per  week  ;  zootechny,  four 
hours ;  theoretic  farriery,  two  hours ;  pharmacy  and  pharmacology, 
two  hours;  pathology  and  therapeutics,  three  to  four  hours;  sur- 
gery, three  to  four  houi-s ;  veterinary  jurisprudence,  two  hours; 
practical  botany,  one  hour  per  week  for  a  month  ;  practical  farriery, 
eight  hours  per  week;  dissection,  exterior,  one  hour;  clinic,  twelve 
hours  ;  practical  pharmacy,  twelve  hours. 

Fourth  Session. — Anatomy  and  physiology,  five  hours  weekly; 
zootecliny,  five  hours  ;  pathology  and  therapeutics,  three  to  four 
hours  ;  surgery  and  obstetrics,  three  to  four  hours  ;  veterinary  juris- 
prudence, two  hours ;    dissection,  operative  surgery,  four  hours ; 


298  THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF   THE   VETERINARY   SCHOOLS. 

practical  farriery,  eight  hours ;  clinic,  twelve  hours  ;  practical  phar- 
macy, twelve  hours. 

Fifth  Sessio7i. — Pathology  and  therapeutics,  three  to  four  hours 
weekly  ;  surgery,  three  to  four  hours ;  dissection,  operative  surgery, 
four  hours ;  practical  farriery,  eight  hours ;  clinic  and  pharmacy, 
twelve  hours  each  weekly. 

Sixth  Session. — Ambulatory  or  visiting  clinic ;  veterinary  juris- 
prudence. 

The  veterinary  examinations  take  place  in  April  and  October, 
and  are  divided  into  two  parts :  the  first  of  these  is  in  pure  natural 
science  only  ;  the  second,  in  the  other  branches  of  veterinary  medi- 
cine. 

Veterinary  Medicine  in  Sweden.^ 

The  first  veterinary  school  in  Sweden  was  founded  by  Hern- 
quist,  born  in  1726.  After  passing  his  examination  as  a  doctor  in 
philosophy  at  the  University  of  Upsala,  Hernquist  went  in  1T63  to 
France,  and,  more  especially  at  Lyons,  studied  veterinary  medicine. 
In  1774  he  established  the  veterinary  school  of  Skara,  Sweden,  and 
was  designated  professor  of  it  in  1778,  remaining  in  it  until  his 
death,  1808.  He  was  a  writer  and  practitioner  of  very  high  order. 
One  of  the  best  of  his  pupils,  Korling,  took  his  place  in  1814 ;  and 
in  1820,  by  order  of  the  Swedish  Government,  he  organized  the 
veterinary  school  at  Stockholm,  remaining  director  of  it,  as  well  as 
that  of  Skara,  until  his  death  in  1855.  The  Skara  school  served  as 
a  preparatory  one  for  that  of  Stockholm,  where  the  student,  after 
a  stay  of  two  or  three  years,  underwent  the  examination  for  the  de- 
gree of  veterinary  surgeon.  At  that  time,  as  now,  the  students 
came  from  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Finland,  and  during  this  period 
a  great  number  of  men  belonging  to  each  of  these  countries  gradu- 
ated at  the  Stockholm  school. 

In  1867  it  was  fixed  by  royal  ordinance  that  before  a  student 
could  enter  that  college  he  must  have  obtained  the  diploma  of 
graduate  in  letters  from  the  university.  This  excellent  measure  for 
the  elevation  of  veterinary  instruction  was  due  to  the  initiative  of 
Professor  Landberg  ;  and,  instead  of  diminishing  the  number  of 
students,  as  some  had  predicted,  it  led  to  an  increase.  In  requiring 
from  candidates  for  admission  to  this  school  an  amount  of  prepara- 
tory knowledge  not  demanded  by  any  other  veterinary  school  in 
Europe,  the  Swedish  Government  has  taken  care  to  protect  the 
interests  of  its  graduates  and  increase  their  income;  the  conse- 
quence is,  that  the  number  of  graduates  has  correspondingly  aug- 

*  "Veterinary  Journal,"  vol  ix,  p.  266,  1879. 


THE  SCHOOLS  OF   GERMANY.  299 

mented  in  quantity  and  quality.  The  candidate,  twenty  or  twenty- 
one  years  of  a^je,  being  a  graduate  in  letters,  is  received  into  the 
veterinary  school,  and  there  he  has  to  study  for  four  or  even  six 
years. 

The  school  has  four  professors,  each  with  an  animal  salary  of 
about  £230;  a  lecturer,  with  a  salary  of  £108;  an  assistant,  or  ad- 
junct, and  a  teacher  of  farriery.  Two  of  the  professors,  the  assist- 
ant, and  the  instructor  in  farriery,  reside  at  the  college ;  the  others 
have  a  yearly  lodging  allowance  of  £28.  The  course  of  teaching 
at  present  is  as  follows : 

Anatomy,  physiology,  zoology,  and  pathological  anatomy — Pro- 
fessor Kinnberg. 

2iooteclmy,  sanitary  science  and  police,  and  the  amlmlutory 
clinic — Professor  Morell. 

Surgery,  obstetrics,  farriery,  and  clinical  surgery — Professor 
Sjostedt. 

Pathology,  therapeutics,  epizootics,  pharmaco-dynamics,  pharma- 
cotechny,  and  special  clinic — Professor  Lindquist. 

Botany,  physics,  chemistry,  pharmacology,  and  j)harmacy — Lec- 
turer Ericsson. 

The  assistant  aids  in  the  clinic,  and  the  other  official  instructs  in 
the  farriery. 

In  Sweden  there  are  thirty  Government  veterinary  surgeons, 
who  receive  an  annual  allowance  of  £S0  and  traveling  expenses. 
The  regiments  in  garrison  have  a  regimental  veterinary  surgeon, 
with  a  yearly  pay  of  £17»> ;  and  a  battalion  veterinary  surgeon  with 
the  rank  of  sub-lieutenant,  who  receives  annually  £112.  Regiments 
of  the  line  have  regimental  and  squadron  veterinary  surgeons,  hav- 
ing the  grade  of  non-connnissioned  officers,  and  a  pay  of  £56  yearly. 
The  number  of  civil  and  military  veterinary  surgeons  under  the 
Government  is  170,  and  all,  so  far  as  their  technical  duties  arc  con- 
ceniod,  are  under  the  direction  of  the  medical  authorities. 

TuE   Schools    of   Germany. 

The  School  at  Stuttgart* 

This  school  was  the  last  established  among  the  German  schools. 
It  was  built  on  territory  which  had  previously  been  occupied  by  the 
Zoological  Garden,  the  royal  order  for  its  establishment  being  dated 
August  21,  1790.     "Walz,  Ilordt,  and  Ilaussmann  were  prominent 

*  "  Die  Koniglich.  Wiirtemberg.  Thicrarznei-Schulc."  Historically  considered  by  He- 
ring.  1847.     Rueff,  1871. 


300  THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF   THE   VETERINARY   SCHOOLS. 

among  the  veterinarians  of  tlie  state  at  this  time,  and  were  called 
upon  to  advise  and  take  part  in  it.  The  former  was  bj  far  the  most 
influential  of  the  trio.  He  was  born  in  Stuttgart,  the  7th  of  De- 
cember, 1771,  and  died  there,  February  4,  1834.  He  received  his 
first  education  in  the  gymnasium  of  his  native  city,  and  then  in  the 
Karls  School  of  Philosophy,  where  he  studied  natural  philosophy 
and  the  general  j)rinciples  of  medicine,  at  the  same  time  acquaint- 
ing himself  with  pharmacy  in  the  shop  of  his  father.  Having  se- 
lected veterinary  medicine  as  his  means  of  livelihood,  he  went  to 
Vienna,  for  a  time  enjoying  the  teachings  of  Wolstein  ;  then  visited 
the  breeding  establishments  in  Austria  and  Hungary ;  thence  his 
travels  brought  him  to  Dresden,  where  he  tarried  at  the  Veterinary 
School  for  a  while  ;  then  visiting  the  Universities  of  Jena,  Erfurt, 
Leipsic,  and  Halle,  and  finally  at  Berlin,  where  he  remained  for 
nine  months  at  the  School  of  Veterinary  Medicine.  The  reputation 
which  the  school  at  Copenhagen  acquired  under  Abildgaard  drew 
him  to  Denmark ;  at  the  same  time  he  studied  medicine  in  the 
hospital  of  the  city  under  Bang  and  "Winslow.  After  three  years' 
absence  he  returned  to  Stuttgart  by  way  of  Hoya,  Hanover,  and 
Gottingen,  and  on  the  9th  of  September,  1794,  received  the  po- 
sition of  an  ofiicial  veterinarian,  having  the  supervision  of  the  en- 
tire veterinary  system  of  the  dukedom.  He  soon  became  a  member 
of  the  sanitary  commission,  and  of  many  scientific  and  public  associa- 
tions. "Walz  was  one  of  the  first  who  asserted  that  the  cheapest  and 
best  way  to  stamp  out  the  rinderpest  was  to  kill  all  diseased  animals, 
as  well  as  those  exposed  to  infection.  The  invasion  began  in  1795, 
but  so  many  difficulties  presented  themselves  to  the  proper  execu- 
tion of  these  principles  that  it  was  not  until  1801  that  the  pest  was 
finally  got  rid  of,  at  a  cost  of  some  40,000  cattle.  His  treatment  of 
the  scabies  of  sheep  has  become  one  of  the  fundamental  elements  of 
the  veterinary  practice.  He  took  a  most  active  part  in  advocating 
a  governmental  veterinary  school,  his  efforts  being  finally  rewarded 
by  success ;  his  life  was  eminently  successful,  and  he  died  respected 
by  all  and  mourned  by  many. 

The  conditions  of  admittance  to  the  school  were  at  first  very 
easy,  requiring  applicants  to  be — 

1.  Twenty  years  old. 

2.  A  healthy  physique,  with  sufficient  strength. 

3.  Free  from  military  duty. 

4.  The  necessary  educational  qualifications. 

5.  Of  good  moral  character. 

6.  Must  know  some  trade. 


TDE  SCHOOLS  OF   GERMANY.  301 

7.  Must  have  means  enougli  to  pay  the  expenses  of  their  educa- 
tion. 

The  school  supplies  sleeping  apartments  for  quite  a  number  of 
students,  and  residence  for  a  number  of  the  teachers.  It  is  titted  up 
with  the  auxiliaries  to  inf>truction,  the  same  as  other  schools,  but  the 
collections  of  skeletons  and  specimens  in  the  anatomical  department 
are  wonderfully  large  for  so  small  an  institute.  The  course  of  study 
was  at  tirst  tixed  at  one  year,  many  students,  however,  remaining 
over  one,  two,  or  even  three  sessions,  themselves  seeing  the  necessity 
of  a  more  complete  education.  In  this  regard,  it  may  be  Avell  re- 
marked that  the  tirst  year  in  any  medical  school  can  do  nothing 
more  than  introduce  a  student  to  his  work  ;  and  if,  at  the  end  of  a 
four-years'  course,  he  has  progressed  so  far  as  to  get  a  general  view 
of  the  field  before  him,  and  has  himself  really  learnetl  how  to  study^ 
how  to  select  the  chatf  from  the  wheat,  he  may  consider  himself  as 
among  the  few  who  enter  in  at  the  strait  gate  which  leadeth  unto 
knowledge.  All  this  talk  about  "  completing  an  education,''  or  '"  he 
has  a  complete  education,"  with  reference  to  graduates  from  schools, 
simply  shows  the  ignorance  of  the  speaker ;  for,  as  I  have  pre- 
viously said,  it  is  only  the  Yirchows,  the  Franklins,  the  Darwins, 
and  Ilallers  among  men  who  get  so  far  as  to  obtain  firm  hold  of 
the  keys  which  are  to  unlock  to  them  the  treasury  of  knowledge 
in  the  future,  but  not  without  untiring  work  and  uncea.sing  self-sac- 
rifice, however.  The  rest  never  even  get  hold  of  the  keys ;  they  are 
and  always  remain  pettifoggers,  dabblers,  or  mere  routiners  and  fol- 
lowers in  the  path  of  the  true  lights  which  lead  on  to  the  j^erfcct 
day. 

The  example  of  the  students  finally  led  to  an  increase  of  the 
term  of  study  to  two  years,  after  a  lapse  of  twenty-five  years  from 
the  opening  of  the  school. 

The  school  had  at  first  four  professors  (a  vast  improvement 
over  that  at  Hanover,  which  at  first  had  but  one,  and  for  a  long 
time  but  two)  and  a  teacher  of  horseshoeing.  The  course  begins 
every  year  on  the  IGtli  of  October  and  ends  the  31st  of  August  the 
following  year.  Vacations  come  at  Christmas  and  Ea.ster,  but  such 
a  number  of  students  must  always  remain  at  the  school  as  is  requi- 
site to  attend  to  the  patients  in  the  hospital.  The  library  contains 
2,1*28  books,  and  is  open  to  the  students  under  certain  regulations, 
which  are  very  easy  to  comply  with  :  "  They  can  keep  a  book  out 
for  four  weeks  at  a  time,  and  are  allowed  all  books  except  such  as 
are  very  rare  or  costly,  which  can  only  be  used  in  the  ruoms  of 
the  librars.'' 


302  THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF   THE   VETERINARY   SCHOOLS. 

Patients  treated  hy  the  Students  from  1821  to  1871. 
Horses  : 

In  the  school  hospital 18,091 

Visited  by  students  outside  the  school 5,896 

Used  for  anatomy  and  operative  practice  ... 684 

Asses  and  mules 45 

24,716 

Dogs  : 

In  school  hospital 5,270 

Brought  in  by  police 755 

6,025 

Cattle  : 

In  school 270 

Outside 16,794 

17,064 

Other  animals 2,652 

Autopsies 2,722 

Whole  number  of  animals  treated  in  school  for  fifty  years.. .        53,179 

"Whole  number  of  students  in  same  period,  2,140.  Of  these,  the 
following  are  recorded  as  having  emigrated  to  America : 

L.  Bickard,  1841-'42;  Alois  Ebach,  1865-'67;  Will.  Eberhardt, 
lS38-'39  ;  J.  F.  Erpf,  1831-'32 ;  A.  Fritz,  1841-'42  ;  B.  Fusseneg- 
ger,  1844-'45 ;  Aug.  Gleich,  studied  winter  of  1860 ;  J.  Haussler, 
1840;  G.  Halm,  1842;  L.  D.  Hess,  1824 ;  Chr.  Horz,  1849-'50 ; 
A.  Ibach,  1886-68 ;  G.  F.  Liitze,  J.  E.  Mack,  1864-'65 ;  J.  Eitters, 
C.  Shock,  J.  J.  Schwarz,  J.  Stiefel,  Chr.  Troscher,  C.  E.  Wolff. 

The  school  at  Stuttgart  is,  I  hope,  soon  to  be  among  the  "  have 
beens."  At  one  time  it  enjoyed  quite  an  exalted  reputation,  but 
since  the  retirement  of  Dr.  Hering,  Sr.,  it  has  steadily  been  going 
into  decline,  and  the  students  becoming  fewer  and  fewer.  This 
is  in  part  owing  to  a  very  injurious  stand  adhered  to  by  some  of  its 
teachers,  and  which  was  once  quite  general  in  Germany,  viz.,  that 
a  school  should  give  two  different  forms  of  education,  and  graduate 
first  and  second  class  veterinarians — the  first  for  the  use  of  the  state, 
the  latter  for  the  people.  The  nonsense  of  such  an  idea  should  be 
apparent  to  any  one,  but  to  no  one  so  quickly  as  to  a  veterinarian. 
Of  one  hundred  students  graduating  from  a  given  class  and  a  given 
school,  and  enjoying  instruction  uniting  to  the  fullest  possible  de- 
gree a  scientific  foundation  and  practical  execution,  not  all  w^ill  be 
successful  practitioners,  and  but  few  suitable  for  state  work,  and 
still  fewer  for  the  highest  state  work — perhaps  one  of  the  hundred 
may  make  a  really  gifted  and  capable  teacher.  Let  the  education  be 
as  perfect  as  possible :  the  world's  test  will  do  the  winnowing. 

It  will  not  do  to  leave  even  this  brief  notice  of  this  school  with- 


THE   SCHOOLS   OF   GEllMAXY.  303 

out  duly  iioticiug  the  man  who  did  more  to  ^ive  it  fame  than, 
in  all  })rol)ability,  all  the  othei-s  c'ond)iued  who  have  taught  withiu 
its  walls.  About  the  thirtieth  year  of  this  century  really  marks  the 
birth  of  the  scientific  tendency  in  veterinary  medicine.  At  this 
time  (Germany  was  far  beyond  any  other  country  in  the  quality  of 
the  work  she  was  giving  to  the  world,  so  far  as  veterinary  medicine 
was  concerned.  Gurlt,  llaubner,  Ilertwig,  and  Ilcring  were  the 
four,  among  others,  who  took  part  in  this  work.  Of  these  four, 
Eduard  Ilering  was  by  no  means  the  least.  He  was  born  in  Stutt- 
gart on  the  2<Hh  of  March,  1709.  laying  recently,  he  enjoyed  the 
well-merited  fruits  of  his  years  of  labor,  as  pensioner  of  his  (iovern- 
ment,  but  a  free  man,  nevertheless,  for  the  services  of  such  men  are 
not  to  be  counted  by  a  few  dollars  paid  yearly  in  supporting  them 
in  comfort  in  their  old  age.  It  is  impossible  for  me  to  give  even  a 
brief  account  of  the  literary  work  of  this  man.  It  covers  three 
finely  printed  pages  in  the  historical  sketch  I  am  now  using.  He 
was  the  best  historian  living  on  veterinary  literature,  and  in  this  re- 
spect may  be  ranked  with  Schrader,  Iluzard,  and  Ercolani,  the  four 
being  the  only  men  who  have  been  especially  noted  in  this  regard, 
lie  also  edited  the  "  Kepertorium  der  Thierheilkunde,"  1S40  to 
date,  a  journal  in  which  he  endeavored  to  give  to  German  readers 
a  digest  of  all  imi>ortant  matters  and  articles  which  came  to  pass  in 
connection  with  their  profession  in  other  lands.  His  ''Special  Pa- 
thology and  Therapeutics,"  and  his  "  Book  for  norsemen,"  are  still 
well  worthy  of  study ;  the  latter  is  beautifully  illustrated  by  the 
celebrated  Baumeister,  also  professor  at  the  school,  and  is  bought 
up  so  closely  as  a  work  of  real  art  that  it  is  impossible  to  get  a  copy, 
it  being  out  of  print  for  many  years.  His  work  on  opei'ative  sur- 
gery should  be  translated  into  English,  it  being  much  more  j)ractical 
and  condensed  than  the  two-volume  verbose  and  indistinct  work 
of  Pcuch  and  Toussaint ;  a  compendium,  critically  revised,  would 
be  a  grand  thing,  but  deliver  us  from  the  original  1  But  the  one 
act  which  has  given  Ilering  the  most  fame,  the  one  act  which 
did  more  for  the  elevation  of  veterinary  medicine  into  a  science 
than  all  the  work  of  all  the  other  jirofessors  at  the  school,  the 
one  act  which  has  made  his  name  immortal  as  a  discoverer  of  a 
new  fact,  was  that  Ilering  was  the  first  to  ex])crimentally  demon- 
strate the  velocity  of  the  circulation  in  the  living  organism,  pul> 
lished  in  "  Tiedemann  und  Trevirarnus  Zeitschrift  fiir  Physiolo- 
gic," Heidelberg,  1828. 


304  THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF  THE   YETEEIXART   SCHOOLS. 


The  School  at  Hanover.^ 

On  the  15tli  of  April,  1777,  the  first  steps  toward  the  erection  of 
a  yeterinary  school  were  taken  into  consideration  by  the  king,  or 
rather  elector,  who  was  at  the  same  time  George  III  of  England, 
and  Kersting,  the  superior  veterinarian  of  the  court  at  Cassel,  a 
neighboring  province,  was  invited  to  visit  Hanover  to  advise  about 
the  opening  of  the  school,  and  take  charge  of  it.  Kersting's  popu- 
larity was  so  great  at  the  court  of  Cassel  that  he  could  not  obtain 
permission  to  leave  for  Hanover,  and  was  obliged  to  run  away.  As 
Kersting  was  by  all  means  the  most  important  German  veterinarian 
of  his  day,  a  short  sketch  of  his  life  is  not  out  of  place  here  : 

"  Johann  Adam  Kersting  was  the  descendant  of  a  Huguenot 
family,  and  was  born  at  Liebenau,  in  Lower  Hesse,  in  1726,  and  died 
at  Hanover,  March  2, 1784,  from  the  effects  of  a  wound  caused  by  the 
kick  of  a  horse,  at  a  time  when  he  could  ill  be  spared,  being  but 
fifty-eight  years  old,  and  full  of  bodily  vigor  and  mental  activity. 
His  father  was  a  farrier,  wound-doctor,  and  veterinarian.  At  fifteen 
years  of  age  the  son  went  into  the  forge  of  his  father  at  Cassel, 
where  he  soon  displayed  unusual  abilities.  Among  others,  he  be- 
came acquainted  with  a  clock-maker,  and  took  so  much  interest  in 
the  work  of  the  latter  that  he  himself  constructed  a  clock  and  hung 
it  up  in  his  fathei-'s  forge,  which  so  incited  the  wrath  of  the  latter 
that  he  knocked  it  in  pieces,  declaring  he  would  have  no  such  non- 
sense interfering  with  the  proper  work  of  his  son.  The  son  also 
busied  himseK  in  studying  the  diseases  of  the  horse,  and  practicing 
their  treatment ;  and  we  find  him,  in  1745,  as  farrier  accompanying 
a  squadron  of  Hessians  into  Scotland  in  favor  of  the  Stuarts.  He 
accompanied  the  Hessian  prince  of  the  day  during  several  wars  as 
farrier,  and  at  the  close  of  the  Seven  Years'  War  studied  medicine 
in  Gottingen  for  a  time.  During  the  war  in  Silesia  (1757)  he  was 
thrown  from  a  baggage-wagon,  with  such  force  as  to  lose  both  sight 
and  hearing,  the  former  not  returning  for  a  period  of  two  years. 
During  his  blindness  he  attended  to  the  publication  of  the  first  edi- 
tion of  his  book,  "  Sicherer  und  wohlerfahrener  Huf  und  Eeit- 
schmidt "  ("  Sure.and  Well-experienced  Farrier  and  Rider").  Dur- 
ing a  winter's  quarters  at  Brunswick  he  again  studied  medicine 
diligently.  At  the  end  of  the  war  he  settled  at  Cassel,  as  farrier 
veterinarian  to  the  court,  where  he  busily  pursued  his  studies,  espe- 

*  These  remarks  are  taken  from  "  Die  konigliche  Thierarznei-Sclmle  zu  Hannover," 
during  the  first  hundred  years  of  its  existence,  by  K.  Giinther,  director  and  professor,  to 
which  the  reader  is  referred  for  all  minute  details. 


THE  &CHOOI.S  OF  GERMANY.  305 

cially  of  anatomy,  and  soon  acquired  a  rej)utation  wliieh  extended 
into  neighboring  provinces.  That  he  acquired  no  inconsiderable 
skill  ill  anatomical  dissection  may  be  divined  from  the  fact  that  he 
discovered  ami  very  minutely  described  the  mendjrane  of  Deccmet 
in  the  horse,  on  the  inner  part  of  the  cornea,  and  connnunicated  the 
same  to  Ilaller  in  a  letter  vehich  is  among  the  collections  at  the  Han- 
over school.  lie  soon  received  students  from  the  adjoining  prov- 
inces, other  governments  sending  young  men  to  study  under  his 
guidance  at  their  expense.  It  was  but  natural  that,  on  opening  the 
discussion  for  the  erection  of  a  veterinary  school  at  Hanover,  the 
attention  of  the  Government  should  be  directed  to  him  as  the  man 
best  fitted  to  successfully  conduct  the  venture.  Ivei*sting's  sudden 
departure  for  Hanover,  against  the  will  of  his  elector,  gave  rise  to  a 
most  interesting  discussion  between  the  two  Governments,  that  of 
Cassel  declaring  him  to  be  a  deserter,  and  demanding  his  return, 
which  was  not,  however,  conceded,  Kersting  declaring  himself  to 
be  no  slave  but  a  free  man,  and  in  debt  to  no  one.  Kersting  was 
a  man  of  irreproachable  character  and  lively  temperament,  an  in- 
defatigable worker,  sharp  and  logical  thinker,  and  close  observ'er 
of  the  phenomena  of  disease.  In  this  regard,  a  remark  which  he 
makes  upon  glanders  is  not  without  public  interest,  when  we  con- 
sider how  long  ago  it  was  made,  and  how  ignorant  many  people  still 
are  with  reference  to  this  disease,  thinking  that  when  no  nas;il  out- 
flow and  ulcere  are  present  there  is  no  glanders.  Kersting  says,  after 
giving  the  usual  characteristics  of  the  disease:  'I  must  concede, 
and  it  is  true,  that  a  glandered  horse  can  present  these  phenomena, 
but  not  in  the  beginning  of  the  disease.  For  a  horse  may  have 
glanders  for  a  whole  year,  and,  according  to  circumstances,  still 
longer,  without  its  having  ulcers  in  the  nose,  and  at  the  same  time 
have  a  good  appetite,  smooth  hair,  and  be  in  good  condition.' " 

Kersting  received  300  thalere  (8-25)  pay,  a  free  residence,  and 
the  title  of  superior  veterinarian  to  the  Hanoverian  court. 

Ilavemann,  who  had  been  sent  to  Alfort,  at  the  expense  of  and 
by  the  Government,  was  appointed  as  assistant  teacher,  at  the  same 
pay.  There  seems  to  have  been  an  extreme  prejudice  existing 
among  the  people  at  this  time  against  those  persons  who  had  any- 
thing to  d<;  witli  cutting  up  animals,  for  the  king  was  obliged  to 
issue  a  royal  order,  by  which  any  slurs  or  other  ill-treatment  of  the 
teachers,  students,  or  servants  at  the  school  for  this  cause  would  be 
punished.  The  course  at  the  school  under  Kersting  was  limited  to 
one  year,  though  many  of  the  students  remained  through  two,  hear- 
ing the  same  lectures  a  second  time.     It  was  as  follows  : 

20 


306  THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF   THE   VETERINARY  SCHOOLS. 

WiNTEE  SESSiOiSr.  Befove  noon. — 8  to  9,  horseshoeing,  dailj ;  9 
to  10,  instruction  npon  the  internal  and  external  diseases  of  the 
horse,  four  days  each  week  ;  10  to  11,  clinic. 

Afternoon. — 1  to  2,  dissection,  daily ;  2  to  3,  anatomical  lec- 
ture, four  days  per  week.  General  examination  upon  all  subjects 
twice  weekly ;  3  to  4,  dissection. 

SuiMMER  Session.  Before  noon. — 8  to  9,  horseshoeing,  daily ;  9 
to  10,  internal  and  external  diseases,  daily  ;  10  to  11,  clinic. 

Afternoon. — 2  to  3,  osteology,  exterior,  physiology,  hygiene, 
obstetrics,  materia  medica,  pharmacy,  bandaging,  etc,  one  day  each 
per  week. 

On  Kersting's  death,  the  direction  of  the  school  passed  to  Have- 
mann,  who  had  for  a  time  been  stationed  at  one  of  the  royal  studs, 
which  he  left  with  great  regret.  He  was  a  man  of  extreme  mod- 
esty, but  nevertheless  proved  himself  to  be  a  competent  and  pleas- 
ant teacher.  There  was  but  little  change  in  the  course  or  manner 
of  instruction.  Havemann  was  requested  to  give  his  views  upon 
veterinary  education  to  the  Government ;  and  this  man  of  the  last 
century  embodies  some  ideas  therein  which  are  not  unworthy  of  ap- 
preciation in  this  country,  which,  to-day,  in  spite  of  self-conceited 
Americanism,  is  no  further  advanced,  so  far  as  veterinary  science  is 
concerned,  than  Hanover  was  then  :  "  According  to  my  ideas,  tiet- 
erinary  medicine  would  receive  a  much  more  rapid  development  if 
the  education  were  made  entirely  free  to  the  children  of  the  land,  as 
there  are  so  few  veterinarians  to  he  had.  Applicants  must  not  only 
be  able  to  write  legibly,  but  must  give  reason  to  hope  for  their  fu- 
ture success  by  diligence  and  a  natural  adaptability  to  the  profession. 
Those  who  have  not  these  two  necessary  qualifications  must  be  dis- 
missed the  schools,  for,  while  it  is  an  undoubted  truth  that  capable 
veterinarians  are  of  much  benefit  to  the  public,  so  is  it  beyond  all 
doubt  that  empirics  and  quacks  are  nothing  else  than  lashes  to  the 
land,  even  though  they  be  supplied  with  letters  of  apprenticeship, 
saying  that  they  have  studied  in  a  royal  veterinary  school  an  art  of 
which  they  have  not  acquired  the  least  idea,"  In  answer  to  the 
question,  "How  long  would  it  take  a  gifted  and  industrious  man  to 
become  an  educated  veterinarian  % "  he  says,  "  One  learns  quicker, 
another  slower,  but  to  all  are  necessary  great  capability,  much  work, 
and  these  all  demand  time,  and  three  years  are  none  too  little."  But, 
in  spite  of  all  this  good  advice,  the  course  was  not  much  extended  by 
the  Government,  or  the  conditions  to  admittance  made  much  more 
severe. 

Hausemann  succeeded  Havemann  as  director  in  1819,  and  had 


THE  SCHOOLS   OF   GERMANY.  307 

for  assistant  the  veterinarian  Freilerick  Giinther.  Little  change  was 
made  in  the  ])hin  of  instruction  until  182S,  except  that  the  courses 
were  made  longer.  In  1828  Gunther  introduced  into  the  curriculum 
forensic  medicine  and  veterinary  j)olice,  materia  medica,  and  the  art 
of  writing  and  nuiking  prescriptions,  with  several  other  essential  im- 
provements. A  teacher  for  horseshoeing  was  also  added  to  the  school. 
The  period  of  study  was  extended  to  two  and  a  half  years,  although 
Giinther  worked  earnestly  to  have  it  three  yeare.  In  1847  Gunther 
became  director,  and  with  it  began  a  new  era  in  the  school.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  he  was  one  of  the  most  eminently  practical  men 
that  has  ever  graced  the  veterinary  profession  in  any  country  ;  per- 
haps it  would  not  be  going  too  far  to  say  that  the  scientific  and 
practical  were  united  in  him  to  a  degree  which  has  been  but  rarely 
met  with  in  the  members  of  our  profession.  lie  was  an  earnest  ex- 
perimenter, a  close  observer,  and  his  greatest  failure  seems  to  have 
been  too  much  delay  in  publishing  his  results.  No  better  hippo-anat- 
omist has  ever  lived  ;  his  work  on  the  "  Myology  of  the  Iloree  "  has 
never  been  equaled,  and  has  been  a  source  of  assistance  to  all  succeed- 
ing authors.  He  was  the  tirst  to  discover  the  chief  cause  of  roaring, 
if  not  the  only  one,  in  atrophy  of  the  laryngeal  muscles,  upon  which 
opening  of  the  glottis  depends,  especially  of  the  left  side,  and  con- 
nected it  by  experiment  with  diseased  conditions  of  the  left  recur- 
rent nerve.  lie  gave  us  the  first  book  of  any  moment  upon  the 
horse's  teeth  and  their  diseases,  and  invented  numerous  practical 
(not  useless)  instruments  for  their  extraction,  etc.  Xo  one  has  fol- 
lowed him  in  this  direction,  atul  we  remain  just  where  he  left  us  in 
the  middle  of  this  century.  His  work  on  obstetrics  was  for  a  long 
time  the  best  which  we  had.  Through  his  earnest  endeavors  and 
untiring  energy,  the  school-term  wa-s  finally  fixed  at  three  years,  at 
which  it  continued  until  1877,  when  with  all  the  German  schools  it 
was  extended  to  three  and  a  half,  and  the  conditions  to  admission 
and  receiving  the  diploma  of  the  empire  were  fixed  alike  for  all. 

Gerlach  succeeded  Gunther  as  director,  and  under  him  the 
school  attained  a  still  greater  celebrity,  but,  as  we  have  to  speak  of 
him  in  e()nnection  with  the  school  at  Berlin,  we  will  defer  further 
remark  till  then.  The  grounds  of  the  Hanover  school  are  quite 
extensive,  the  library  replete  with  books  and  many  valuable  manu- 
scripts and  works  of  early  German  and  other  Continental  veterinarians. 
The  buildings  are  many  of  them  new,  and  all  have  recently  suffered 
renovation.  The  hospital  is  roomy,  airy,  and  well  lighted  ;  in  fact, 
the  school  has  all  the  requisites  necessary  to  such  an  institution  of  a 
smaller   variety,  except  a  special    physiologist    and   physiological 


308  THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF   THE   VETERINARY   SCHOOLS. 

laboratory.  The  above-mentioned  historical  sketch,  from  which  I 
have  taken  these  few  facts,  gives  a  list  of  all  the  students,  their 
place  of  birth,  time  of  entrance,  and  whether  they  received  a  diplo- 
ma or  not,  from  the  year  1820  to  1877  ;  from  which  we  see  that 
during  that  time  1,269  students  were  recorded  upon  the  books :  many 
of  these  never  stood  their  examination  ;  among  the  latter  will  be 
found,  in  all  probability,  quite  a  number  of  "  graduates  of  a  German 
school "  (?)  now  practicing  in  this  country. 

The  present  corps  of  teachers  is  as  follows  (1877) : 
Medical  Councilors. — K.  Guenther,  Director ;    Professor  Bege- 
mann.  Professor  Dr.  Dammaun,  Dr.  Harms,  Dr.  Lustig,  Dr.  Rabe, 
Dr.  Brlicher,  Dr.  Eichbaum,  Vet.  Ernst  (assistant). 

The  School  at  Munich. 

Instead  of  offering  an  imperfect  historical  sketch  of  this  institu- 
tion, it  seems  more  conformable  with  the  purposes  of  this  book  to 
offer  to  your  consideration  a  translation  of  the  following  address, 
"  U])on  the  Necessity  for  the  Reform  of  Yeterinary  Education  in  Ger- 
many, as  proved  hy  the  History  of  the  Munich  School,^^  by  my  friend 
Professor  Johann  Feser,  of  that  institution,  delivered  August  6, 
1873 ;  the  more  so  as  there  is  much  contained  therein  of  unquestion- 
able importance  to  the  people  of  this  country,  and  further,  that  the 
author  is  one  of  the  most  advanced  thinkers  as  well  as  accomplished 
scientists  in  the  veterinary  profession  of  our  day  : 

"  The  veterinary  schools  have  assumed  no  less  a  task  than  the 
education  of  completely  qualified  veterinarians,  for  their  graduates 
have  a  manifold  service  to  perform  to  states  interested  in  the 
breeding  of  domestic  animals,  which  can  only  be  well  done  by  a 
complete  scientific  and  practical  education,  united  to  great  diligence 
and  unceasing  activity  by  the  veterinarian  himself. 

"  The  veterinarian  must  not  only  be  capable  of  performing  the 
practical  duties  of  his  profession  when  called  upon  by  the  public, 
but  he  has  much  higher  duties;  he  must  at  the  same  time  act  as 
counselor  and  protector  of  the  state,  and  that  portion  of  its  citizens 
interested  in  the  breeding  and  rearing  of  domestic  animals,  thereby 
contributing  to  the  nation's  welfare  by  keeping  distant  and  suppress- 
ing those  pests  which  carry  death  and  desolation  in  their  path. 

"  The  chief  task  of  the  veterinarian  lies  in  keeping  the  domestic 
animals  in  health,  and  in  exerting  a  favorable  influence  toward 
their  perfection  hy  aiding,  as  educated  advisers,  the  progressive  de- 
velopment of  breeding  in  the  land  {to  which  may  well  be  added,  and 
in  'preventing  many  diseases  of  human  beings  caused  by  unsuitable 


THE  SCHOOLS   OK   GERMAXY.  309 

animal  jyroducfs  \chich  would  otherwise  he  offered  for  consumption 
as  articles  of  food).  The  veterinary  schools  are  7wt,  therefore, 
founded  for  tfie  education  of  mere  curers  ;  they  are  not  instituted 
to  send  raw  empirics  into  the  land,  for  in  such  cases  the  aims  of 
veterinary  medicine  are  by  no  means  attained.  Sucli  empirics 
were  plenty  enough  long  before  the  foundation  of  the  veterinary 
schools ;  and  only  because  of  their  utter  uselessness  to  the  state  were 
the  veterinary  schools  founded,  in  order  that  veterinarians  could  be 
had  suitable  to  the  higher  purposes  which  the  public  necessities  de- 
manded. 

"  In  order  to  prove  the  correctness  of  this  assertion,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  refer  to  the  history  of  the  veterinary  schools.  We  must  know 
why  these  schools  were  really  founded,  what  necessity  they  were 
expected  to  fill,  and  how  observing  men  thought  this  end  was 
best  to  be  attained. 

"To  this  purpose  nothing  serves  better  than  the  address  deliv- 
ered by  Cothenius,  body-surgeon  to  Frederick  the  Great  of  Pnissia, 
before  the  Academy  of  Sciences  on  the  21st  of  January,  17C8,  be- 
fore there  was  any  veterinary  school  in  Germany.  Cothenius  first 
demonstrated  from  the  records  of  history  that  in  antiquity,  and  fol- 
lowing down  to  his  time,  devastating  animal  plagues  had  always  ex- 
isted, which  produced  immense  misery  to  the  people,  and  concluded 
with  the  advice  that  only  veterinary  schools  had  the  power  to  give 
the  means  of  freeing  the  nation  from  these  plagues  ;  but  he  placed 
great  emphasis  upon  the  necessity  of  an  exact  fundamental  educa- 
tion, giving  a  plan  for  their  establishment  which  is  well  worthy 
our  present  consideration,  though  elucidated  over  one  hundred 
years  since.  lie  knew  very  well  that  at  that  time  there  was  no  thor- 
ough plan  of  education,  no  veterinary  science,  and  no  teachers,  and 
that  for  the  last  purpose  men  of  great  ability  were  necessary,  for 
they  were  to  teach  subjects  of  which  they  knew  nothing,  and  upon 
which  there  were  no  suitable  books  of  reference,  or  other  assist- 
ance, lie  said:  'The  first  teachers  must  not  be  ashamed  to  be 
themselves  students ;  their  greatest  honor  must  be  the  public  admis- 
sion of  their  own  ignorance.  The  less  they  at  present  know,  and 
the  more  they  feel  the  necessity  of  learning,  the  more  have  we  rea- 
son to  hope  that  they  will  in  time  attain  to  that  degree  of  perfection 
which  thov  so  much  desire.'  Thus  we  see  that  Cothenius  well  a|v 
prcciated  the  only  way  by  which  veterinary  science  was  to  be  suc- 
cessfully developed.  He  looked  upon  this  task  from  a  purely  scien- 
tific stand-point,  and  well  knew  that  progress  was  only  to  be  at- 
tained  bv  the  methods  and  assistance  of   scientific  research.     To 


310  THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF  THE   VETERINARY   SCHOOLS. 

this  end  he  demanded  not  only  macroscopic  but  microscopic  anat- 
omy, a  physio-pathologic,  therapeutic  method  of  exact  investigation, 
and  recognized  the  necessity  of  a  well-ordered  chemical  labora- 
tory. He  laid  emphasis  upon  the  necessity  of  several  teachers  for 
such  schools.  He  recommended  paying  especial  attention  to  the 
study  of  the  animal  plagues,  and  laid  great  stress  upon  the  value 
of  exact  observation  and  experiment.  He  says :  '  In  the  study- 
room  one  can  make  no  such  observations.  The  teacher  must,  at 
the  time  such  pests  prevail,  go  out  into  the  country,  and  hold  his 
dietetic,  pathologic,  and  therapeutic  discussion  in  the  afflicted  sta- 
bles ;  he  must  observe  the  situation  and  character  of  the  stables, 
and  cause  better  ventilation,  cleanliness,  and  care  of  the  animals ; 
he  must  visit  the  fields,  meadows,  and  drinking-places,  in  order  to 
ascertain  if  in  them  are  not  to  be  sought  cither  immediate  or  mediate 
causes  of  infection,  and  what  in  every  case  is  necessary  to  propose 
for  the  better  protection  of  the  animals.  He  must  gather  all  forms 
of  dew,  and  make  therewith  chemical  and  physiological  experi- 
ments, and  must  also  have  recourse  to  the  microscope  in  order  to  see 
if  he  can  not  discover  some  poisonous  insects,  which,  either  of  them- 
selves or  with  their  semen,  so  pollute  the  vegetation  as  to  cause  the 
generation  of  the  pest  or  other  infectious  disease.'  (In  reading  this 
one  almost  forgets  he  is  passing  over  words  written  more  than  one 
hundred  years  since.)  '  The  teacher  shall  study  the  animal  in  all 
its  parts,  its  mode  of  life,  procreation ;  and,  when  necessary,  shall 
have  recourse  to  the  crucible  and  distillation  to  increase  his  knowl- 
edge. He  must  separate  things  into  their  minute  parts,  unite  and 
make  new  bodies,  and  seek  to  attain  a  sort  of  despotic  power  over 
nature.'  " 

This  is  what  was  thought  in  the  last  century  by  the  founder  of 
veterinary  medicine  in  Germany.  The  schools  Tnust  he  useful  nurs- 
eries of  science^  and  not  produce  mere  empirics. 

Let  us  see  if  the  schools  have  fulfilled  their  task,  and,  if  not,  seek 
to  discover  what  has  prevented  them  from  doing  so. 

It  is  all  the  more  our  duty  to  do  this,  as  the  popular  judgment 
with  regard  to  the  results  at  the  schools  seems  to  be  at  present  un- 
favorable. Kot  only  the  organs  of  the  state  and  agriculture,  the 
interests  of  which  are  to  be  served  by  the  educated  veterinarian 
from  an  economical  point  of  view,  but  also  the  graduates  of  the 
schools,  concur,  more  or  less,  in  this  opinion,  as  was  sufficiently 
demonstrated  at  the  Frankfort  congress  of  German  veterinarians  in 
1872. 

It  is  especially  the  duty  of  the  teachers  at  the  schools  to  acknowl- 


THE  SCHOOLS  OF   GERMANY.  311 

edge  tlicse  evils,  aiul  to  seek  fur  their  removal,  and  I  doubt  not  that 
the  governments  will  respectfully  listen  to  our  demands  for  reform. 

1  pledge  myself  to  Lave  the  strictest  regard  for  the  truth  in  the 
t;isk  I  have  undertaken,  even  though  it  may  be  unpleasant  to  some, 
and  to  bind  njyself  to  facts  ;  and,  in  proving  the  questions  we  have  to 
consider,  to  do  it  according  to  the  strictest  methods  of  science,  and 
to  keep  in  mind  only  the  attainable  and  practical  parts  of  the  ques- 
tion. 

With  reference  to  the  history  of  the  Munich  school,  we  shall 
most  speedily  atain  our  end  if  we  consider  those  causes  which  have, 
at  dillerent  times,  interfered  with  the  production  of  good  veterina- 
rians. Then  I  will  show  that  even  in  our  day  evil  conditions  still 
exist,  the  complete  removal  of  which  is  beyond  the  power  of  the 
best  teachers,  notwithstanding  all  diligence  and  pei*severancc.  The 
proposals  for  improvement  will  then  receive  their  consideration. 

The  school  at  Munich  has  passed  through  two  epochs  since  its 
foundation.  The  tirst  extends  from  its  establishment  in  1790  to  the 
year  1S52,  and  the  second  from  that  date  to  the  end  of  the  school 
year  1872. 

Nothing  satisfactory  can  be  said  about  the  condition  and  results 
at  our  school  during  the  first  epoch.  Empiricism  obtained  a  greatly 
extended  duration  in  Bavaria,  while  at  the  other  veterinary  schools 
(German)  it  extended  only  to  the  second  decennium  of  our  century. 
Many  of  the  learned  gentlemen  present  studied  at  our  school  during 
this  period  and  must  confirm  my  judgment,  that  our  institute  had 
until  then  never  filled  the  place  of  a  scientific  veterinary  school  as 
portrayed  by  Cothenius.  Xothing  but  schooled  "  routiniei-s  "  were 
produced,  nor  did  they  dare  to  produce  anything  else.  They  hid 
themselves  under  a  deceptive  cloud,  by  boasting  of  their  abhorrence 
of  speculative  theories  and  of  their  great  respect  for  practical  things, 
which  by  no  means  should  be  neglected,  but  by  this  means  they  nour- 
ished an  imbecile  empiricism  and  sought  to  keep  distant  from  all  true 
science.  It  was  made  exceedingly  difficult  for  young  men  of  better 
preparatory  education  to  gain  entrance  to  the  school ;  in  fact,  they  ap- 
pear to  have  been  intentionally  avoided,  so  that  any  external  incite- 
ment to  scientific  work  became  impossible.  The  experimental 
method  suggested  by  Cothenius  as  absolutely  necessary  to  the 
sch(X)ls  had  no  ])lace  in  the  programme.  The  great  reforms  in 
medicine  in  general,  and  every  natural  science,  were  passed  heed- 
lessly by,  by  the  Munich  school  of  that  period.  Instruction  in  natu- 
ral sciences,  the  foundation  of  the  study  of  medicine,  was  so  neg- 
lected that  one  feels  almost  ashamed  to  mention  it.     The  few  stu- 


312  THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF  THE  VETERINARY   SCHOOLS. 

dents  who  gained  admittance  from  the  "  real  schools  "  were  aston- 
ished thereby,  and  scorned  to  make  notes  upon  the  nonsense  which 
they  heard  from  the  lecturer  at  the  desks  of  the  school.  There  was 
neither  chemical  laboratory  nor  physical  cabinet,  but  every  "real 
school "  had  these  long  before  1852,  and  all  the  attributes  necessary 
to  good  elementary  instruction  in  natural  science. 

Let  it  remain  so !  We  will  not  follow  this  sad  relation  further. 
You  will  believe  me,  however,  that  with  the  exception  of  anatomy, 
the  conditions  were  no  more  flattering  with  reference  to  the  purely 
veterinary  branches  than  with  the  natural  sciences  upon  which  they 
are  founded.  One  would  naturally  assume  that,  although  the  scien- 
tific side  of  our  education  was  so  much  neglected,  the  students  at 
least  received  a  good  practical  education.  On  the  contrary,  that 
was  not  the  case. 

Let  us  see  if  we  can  not  discover  the  causes  of  this  neglect  of 
the  teachings  of  Cothenius, 

To  this  end  we  must  again  have  reference  to  the  general  history 
of  the  schools,  and  bear  in  mind  the  extravagances  of  the  first  French 
schools,  to  which  many  evil  influences  may  be  justly  attributed. 

Two  schools  (Lyons  and  Alfort)  were  organized  in  France  some 
years  before  the  foundation  of  any  in  Germany.  The  Alfort  school 
was  larger  than  that  at  Lyons,  and  received  from  the  beginning 
great  attention  and  care  from  the  Government.  The  fittings  of  the 
school  exceeded  those  of  the  German  schools,  even  in  our  day,  and 
every  condition  was  present  to  attain  the  ends  which  should  be  re- 
quired of  a  school  except  fitting  teachers  and  promoting  veterinary 
science.  Suitcible  teachers  are  and  ever  will  he  the  chief  desidera- 
tum /  without  them  all  donations  of  money  are  useless.  This  was 
soon  experienced  by  the  French  schools.  Instead  of  proceeding  in 
the  manner  indicated  by  Cothenius,  and  first  paying  their  attention 
to  the  development  of  proper  teachers,  they  sought  at  once  to  make 
the  world  wise  by  a  display  of  superficial  knowledge.  The  students 
were  educpted  in  a  manner  to  produce  superficial  but  ready  talkers, 
but  not  to  become  methodical  and  educated  veterinarians.  The  Al- 
fort school  especially  sought  to  gain  an  acknowledgment  of  supe- 
riority from  other  nations,  which  was,  indeed,  attained,  but  not  with- 
out great  injury  to  herself.  Chairs  for  agriculture,  comparative 
anatomy,  natural  sciences,  animal  painting,  etc.,  were  even  then 
attained,  although  the  raw  empirical  material  at  command  had  by 
no  means  been  sufficiently  culled  out.  The  students  must  at  once 
be  educated  to  be  obstetricians,  wound  and  eye  doctors,  coroners, 
etc.,  in  order  to  fill  the  wants  of  the  country  in  this  regard.     They 


THE   SCHOOLS   OF   GERMANY.  313 

founded  a  menagerie  filled  mostly  -with  exotic  animals,  and  gave 
great  attention  to  the  breeding  of  sheep,  rabbits,  fowls,  and  even 
silk- worms.  To  the  formation  of  the  so-called  ''royal  cabinet,"  stu- 
dents and  teachers  were  sent  at  great  expense  to  the  sea-coast  to 
•rather  examiiles  of  different  sea-animals.  Thev  studied  the  anato- 
my  of  the  dolphin  and  ray,  and  forgot  that  of  the  domestic  animals. 
This  superficial  learning  of  a  little  of  many  things  was  especially  cul- 
tivated by  Bourgelat  to  the  cost  of  a  true  scientitic  method,  and 
found,  fortunately,  little  imitation  in  Germany.  But  instead  of  pass- 
ing quietly  by  these  French  extravagances,  and  copying  them  in 
what  good  things  they  had,  we  fell  into  the  opposite  extreme  of 
developing  one-sided  empirics,  the  so-called  "  Rossiirzte  "  (horse-doc- 
tors) and  "  Kursehmiede  "  (farriers).  Every  attempt  of  individual 
men  at  the  schools  to  introduce  the  true  scientific  method  was  ener- 
getically combated,  and  the  French  schools  quoted  to  strengthen 
the  ground  of  the  opponents.  Bojanus,  medical  councilor  in  Hesse, 
enjoys  the  nnenviable  reputation  of  having  most  successfully  op- 
posed all  improvement.  I  can  not  refrain  from  telling  you  how 
Bojanus  would  have  the  veterinarians  educated  and  the  schools  con- 
ducted, lie  had  a  controlling  power  at  the  Munich  school  until 
1S52. 

Bojanus  looked  upon  the  education  of  i'>ractlcal  men  as  the  sole 
task  of  the  schools.  They  would  fail  of  our  purpose  were  they  edu- 
cated to  be  scientific  veterinarians.  (The  English  have  most  reli- 
giously followed  in  this  direction  even  to  our  day,  and  here  in  Amer- 
ica a  good  practical  ignoramus  is  in  general  more  prized  tlian  the 
man  of  genuine  scientific  attainments ;  let  it  be  understood,  I  claim, 
a  trnhj  scientific  man  can  never  be  aught  else  than  practical.)  Cer- 
tain axioms  were  to  be  learned  as  articles  of  jiractical  belief,  the 
students  being  reduced  to  mere  mechanical  machines.  The  state 
needed  only  veterinary  hand-workers  (in  some  parts  of  France  the 
veterinarians  are  still  spoken  of  as  '*  artistes  vi'terinaires  "),  who  would 
follow  the  rules  learned  at  school  with  blind  confidence.  Such  a 
practitioner  never  asks  the  cause  of  the  phenomena  which  he  sees 
presented  to  him  by  a  diseased  organism  ;  he  does  not  seek  to  enter 
into  the  real  nature  of  the  disease,  but  is  contented  to  know  that  dis- 
ease is  before  him.  He  does  not  seek  to  arrange  a  special  method 
of  treatment,  but  u.ses  that  which  he  has  learned  as  something  dis- 
covered for  all  time.  lie  is  all  content  when  the  patient  recovers, 
and  asks  not  why,  nor  under  what  neccsi?ary  laws,  it  lias  taken  place, 
lie  enters  pul)lic  life  as  a  common  artisan,  and  must  always  be 
classed  as  such ;  he  never  feels  the  power  in  him  that  is  given  to 


314  THE  ESTABLISHMENT   OF   THE  VETERINARY   SCHOOLS. 

the  scientifically  educated  man,  but  is  content  with  the  bounds  and 
bars  which  surround  him.  The  school  was  to  take  only  such  stu- 
dents from  the  masses  as  were  fitted  to  go  back  again  to  the  same. 
Their  knowledge  was  to  be  limited  to  what  was  necessary  to  their 
livelihood,  and  to  read  and  write  sufficient  to  support  the  memory. 
1^0  other  preliminary  knowledge  was  considered  necessary.  They 
were  entirely  wanting  in  a  preparatory  scientific  education  or  spirit. 

You  will  permit  me  to  describe  to  you  the  method  of  instruction 
which  Bojanus  would  have  introduced  into  the  schools,  especially 
as  two  teachers  of  modern  times  (Director  E,ueff,  of  Stuttgart,  and 
Professor  Plug,  of  Giessen)  would  have  us  follow  in  the  same  di- 
rection. 

Bojanus  writes:  "It  is  the  duty  of  the  practical  veterinarian  to 
cure  the  sick  animals  belonging  to  the  public.  His  office,  which 
does  not  belong  to  the  most  respected,  brings  him  constantly  in 
relation  with  the  commonest  people,  to  whose  ideas  and  conceptions 
he  must  adapt  himself  if  he  will  not  endanger  his  success  and  let  it 
pass  over  into  the  hands  of  quacks  and  herdsmen.  He  busies  him- 
self with  disgusting  work  in  dirty  stables,  and  all  his  endeavors  and 
privations  are  rewarded  with  but  a  scanty  income  which  scarcely 
covers  his  necessities,  and,  at  the  most,  permits  him  to  enter  society 
as  an  ordinary  artisan."  Bojanus  then  goes  on  to  say  that  "the 
scientifically  educated  veterinarian  is  unsuited  to  such  work,  and 
could  not  lower  himself  to  the  necessary  level,  and  is  therefore 
never  looked  upon  by  the  people  as  a  j?raciical  man,  and,  there- 
fore, it  is  the  duty  of  the  schools  to  educate  practical,  not  scientific, 
veterinarians."  These  words  of  Bojanus  justify  us  in  concluding 
that  he  knew  right  well  the  qualifications  of  a  scientific  veterina- 
rian, but  he  intentionally  put  all  he  could  in  the  way  of  their  edu- 
cation. On  the  contrary,  Bojanus  would  have  the  teachers  scientific 
men  in  order  that  they  might  discover  new  methods  of  treatment 
and  give  them  to  the  students,  who  were  supposed  to  follow  im- 
plicitly in  these  ruts  in  practice.  To  the  end  that  the  state  may 
have  such  teachers,  Bojanus  would  have  another  form  of  school,  a 
higher,  scientific  school.  In  these  were  to  be  taken  the  candidates 
for  teachers'  positions,  with  a  complete  scientific  education  from 
the  lap  of  the  academy.  Bojanus  either  did  not  see,  or  passed  in- 
tsntionally  by,  the  fact  that  the  state  needs  scientifically  educated 
veterinarians  for  the  purposes  of  veterinary  police  and  forensic 
medicine,  and  for  the  perfection  of  the  breeds  of  the  domestic 
animals.  The  second  class  of  veterinarians  were  there  only  to  be 
curers,  and  a  very  small  class  of  scientific  veterinarians  to  develop 


THE   SCHOOLS   OF   GERMANY.  315 

ciire-methods  for  the  benefit  of  the  former.  In  this  way  there  came 
to  pass  the  idea  that  two  chisses  of  veterinary  schools  were  necessary, 
which  occasionally  finds  an  advocate  even  in  onr  day,  althongh  it 
must  be  remarked  that  these  people  go  higher  in  their  demands  for 
a  veterinary  academy,  and  propose  that  not  only  teachers  but  a  small 
number  of  scientific  veterinarians  also  shall  be  educated  for  the  ])ur- 
poses  of  the  state. 

If  we  return  to  the  conditions  in  Bavaria,  we  shall  iind  that  only 
the  poorest  proposals  of  Bojanus  came  to  fulfillment,  and  that  no 
one  bothered  himself  about  the  education  of  scientific  veterinari- 
ans. According  to  the  edict  of  1810  for  the  organization  of  the 
veterinary  institutes  of  Bavaria,  that  only  went  out  of  power  in  the 
last  few  ycare,  it  was  found  very  convenient  (at  first,  doubtless,  ne- 
cessary) to  promote  the  forensic  M.  D.'s  to  veterinarians  of  the  first 
class,  falsely  assuming  that  the  doctor,  from  his  education,  was  well 
adapted  to  be  the  highest  veterinary  authority,  and  that  a  short 
visit  to  the  lectures  at  a  veterinary  school  would  completely  equalize 
any  want  of  knowledge  he  previously  might  have.  The  lectures  for 
this  purpose  in  Munich  lasted  eight  days.  In  two  or  three  hours 
were  completed  the  lectures  upon  nutrition  in  the  horse  and  rumi- 
nants ;  in  one  hour  those  upon  operative  surgery ;  and  in  one  to 
five  hours  the  elements  of  animal  pests,  or  veterinary  police ;  one 
to  three  hours  were  given  to  gaining  practical  knowledge  in  the 
clinic.  Only  an  idiot  could  assert  that  this  kind  of  education  would 
sufiiee  to  the  production  of  scientific  veterinarians,  for  even  in  1790 
the  full  course  of  stuily  for  second-class  veterinarians  at  Munich 
extended  over  three  full  years. 

The  above  description  suftieiently  indicates  the  hindrances  in 
the  way  to  the  education  of  scientific  veterinarians  in  the  first  epoch 
of  our  school,  and  no  one  need  wonder  that  our  science  stood  still 
impotent  in  comparison  to  human  medicine  and  that  it  could  not 
develop  to  that  position  which  it  was  expected  would  be  the  case 
with  the  foundation  of  the  schools.  Notwithstanding  the  diflicul- 
ties  which  they  had  to  overcome,  it  must  be  said,  to  the  credit  of 
the  profession,  that  even  during  tliis  period  many  men  of  acknowl- 
edged ability  were  to  be  found  in  the  land  ;  but  it  is  impossible  to 
place  this  to  the  credit  of  the  school,  but  to  the  great  diligence  of 
the  individuals,  who  overcame  the  failures  of  their  school  educa- 
tion. A  not  less  praiseworthy  service  of  these  men  was  the  fact 
that  they  mercilessly  exposed  the  weakness  of  the  school,  and  finally 
succeeded  in  bringing  about  the  reform  which  took  place  in  1852. 

After  the  Government  of  Bavaria  had  seen  the  failures  in  the 


316  THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF   THE   VETERINARY   SCHOOLS. 

manner  in  whicli  the  scliool  was  conducted,  and  after  it  had  re- 
peatedly heard  the  grumblings  of  the  agriculturists  that  mere  em- 
pirics were  useless,  a  reform  was  decided  upon,  which,  however, 
failed  of  a  scientific  basis.  The  germ  of  the  failure  was  that  the 
school  still  remained  patterned  after  those  of  France,  and  was  left 
free  from  every  connection  with  the  medical  faculty.  It  was  as- 
sumed that  all  scientific  foundation  in  the  preliminary  education 
was  unnecessary,  save  what  little  was  gained  by  students  in  a  low 
class  of  a  "  real "  school,  and  the  two  lowest  classes  in  Latin.  The 
teachers  were  too  few,  and,  taken  mostly  from  the  old  empirical 
school,  were  not  adequate  to  the  education  of  veterinarians  suitable 
to  the  purposes  of  the  state.  Tliey  were  so  poorly  paid  that  they 
were  obliged  to  have  outside  occupations  in  order  to  live,  so  that 
teaching  and  self-improvement  became  a  matter  of  secondary  im- 
portance. 

"  I  myself  had  the  misfortune  to  study  three  years  (1857-60)  un- 
der this  Tcglme.  The  conditions  at  the  school  then  were  sad  indeed, 
for  I  will  describe  to  you  a  time  when  we  should  have  seen  some- 
thing of  the  development  of  the  scientific  spirit.  The  school  did 
not  then  have  the  least  scientific  character ;  even  the  good  of  the 
old  school,  the  instruction  in  anatomy  and  dissection,  was  neglected. 
The  physiology  which  we  heard  was  nothing  else  than  what  Schwab 
had  written  many  years  before  for  the  instruction  of  empirics.  Kot 
a  single  experiment  illustrated  the  lectures.  There  was  no  practice 
in  the  use  of  the  microscope.  The  instruction  in  natural  science, 
over  which  so  much  talk  was  made,  consisted  in  nothing  else  than 
in  learning  by  rote  a  few  pages  of  j)Oorly  compiled  chemical  analyses 
from  Gorup-Besanez's  work  upon  that  subject.  There  was  a  chemi- 
cal laboratory  which  had  just  been  erected,  but  only  for  the  agi-i- 
cultural  experiment  station,  and  exclusively  for  the  use  of  students 
of  agriculture  and  forestry  from  the  university.  The  instruction  in 
botany  was  very  poor.  Physics  was  not  taught.  The  formulas  for 
the  prepan.tion  of  medicines  passed  as  traditions  from  student  to 
student,  and  I  do  not  say  too  much  in  stating  that  not  a  single  one 
was  con'ect.  Pharmaceutical  chemistry  was  lectured  upon  by  an  as- 
sistant, but  a  second  one  coming  after  one  lecture  had  been  deliv- 
ered, we  did  not  attend  them  further,  for  we  knew  more  chemistry 
than  he  did.  The  pharmacognostical  collection  was  poor,  old,  moldy, 
and  unsuitable  for  study  or  demonstration.  The  teaching  upon  the 
action  of  medicines  was  nothing  more  than  a  mere  phraseology, 
which  served  to  hide  the  ignorance  of  the  teacher,  but  did  not  help 
to  instruct  the  students.     The  balance  of  the  instruction  bore  the 


TUE   SCHOOLS   OF  GERMANY.  317 

same  character.  The  dependency  and  insufficiency  of  tlie  institute 
is  well  illustrated  by  one  fact,  which  amply  shows  the  requirements 
which  were  necessary.  In  order  to  make  a  correct  necroscopical 
diagnosis,  for  instance,  of  liright's  condition  of  the  kidneys,  it  was 
necessary  to  call  in  the  assistance  of  a  professor  of  pathological  anat- 
omy from  the  medical  faculty  of  the  university,  and  numerous  valu- 
able and  instructive  specimens  sent  to  the  school  by  practicing  vet- 
erinarians perished  for  want  of  proper  aj)preciatiou.  It  is  no  wonder 
that  the  congress  of  veterinarians  atAViirzburg,  in  ISGO,  pronounced 
it  a  w;iste  of  time,  trouble,  and  money,  to  allow  the  institute  to  con- 
tinue its  existence.  I  will  cease,  at  this  point,  enumerating  the  sins 
of  the  Munich  school  during  the  first  half  of  this  epoch,  as  it  would 
not  be  courteous  to  extend  it  to  the  present  teachers." 

Let  us  turn  our  attention  for  a  moment  to  the  other  schools  of 
Germany,  for  I  have  endeavored  to  get  at  the  true  facts,  so  far  as 
was  in  my  power.  With  the  exception  of  Berlin,  which,  notwith- 
standing a  brilliant  external  reputation,  had  fallen  into  a  stiige  of 
semi-torpidity,  its  teachej's  having  become  old,  and  new  power  being 
needed,  and  the  school  at  Stuttgart,  the  schools  at  Dresden  and 
Hanover  were  in  many  instances  worthy  of  being  considered  as 
models.  Dresden  had  suffered  a  complete  renovation,  and  Gerlach 
worked  in  Hanover.  (In  both  these  cases  it  was,  however,  the  work 
of  single  individuals  which  gave  these  schools  what  little  advantage 
they  had.  Ilaubner  in  Dresden,  and,  as  Feser  says,  Gerlach  in  Han- 
over; there  was  nothing  general  about  it.)  But  neither  of  them 
went  beyond  the  education  of  clever  empirics — in  proof  of  which 
may  be  noted  the  fact  that,  after  the  reformation  of  the  plan  of  the 
Dresden  school,  of  which  so  much  was  spoken  and  expected,  it  was 
found  impossible  to  find  veterinarians  suitable  for  teachers,  and  the 
chairs  were  only  finally  filled  by  going  outside  of  Saxony,  and  at 
great  expense.  (Here  is  a  proper  place  for  me  to  remark  that,  not- 
withstanding the  high  position  which  I  have  clainu;d  for  the  Ger- 
man schools  and  other  veterinary  institutions,  no  one  unacfpiainted 
with  the  true  conditions  can  realize  how  few  men  there  are  among 
the  graduates  of  the  German  veterinary  schools  at  all  fitted  to  be- 
come teachers,  and  every  one  of  these  few,  and  every  man  who 
has  gained  fame  before  them,  have  been  obliged,  at  great  cost  to 
their  physiipie  and  demands  upon  means  which  in  no  case  are  too 
plenty,  to  fill  the  great  gaps  in  their  c<lucation  by  studies  at  the 
medical  schools  of  Germiin  universities.  The  number  of  men  of 
real  value  to  the  scientific  advancement  of  veterinary  medicine  at 
the  schools  of  Germany  is  not  more  than  sufficient  to  make  a  faculty 


318     THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  VETERINARY  SCHOOLS. 

for  one  school.  There  are  unquestionably  men  of  practical  ability  at 
these  schools,  but  they  are  of  that  empirical  character  that  does  not 
advance  science  an  inch,  but,  with  a  terrible  reverence  for  the  tra- 
ditions of  the  past,  stand  obstinately  in  the  way  of  progress,  and  by  a 
great  display  of  verbose  repetition  of  other  j^eople's  work,  make  the 
world  think  they  know  more  than  they  really  do.  If  there  is  a  man  I 
fear,  as  an  enemy  to  my  profession,  though  j)ersonally  he  may  be  a 
good  friend,  it  is  the  man  of  great  experience,  of  great  reverence  for 
the  past,  of  good  talldng  abilities,  hut  without  a  parotide  of  origi- 
nality or  scientific  spirit.  Such  men  are  more  fitted  for  political 
intriguers  than  teachers  at  a  scientific  school.) 

After  this  diversion,  let  us  return  to  Feser's  remarks : 
"  Under  the  above  retarding  conditions,  it  is  no  wonder  that 
progress  was  checked,  and  all  sorts  of  complaints  found  ready  utter- 
ance. Tlie  agricultural  papers  and  the  organs  of  the  state  opened 
up  the  subject  continually,  complaining  of  the  insufficiency  of  the 
veterinary  profession  in  comparison  with  the  demands  which  were 
made  upon  it.  The  reflecting  Bavarian  veterinarians  again  joined 
hands  with  the  above-named  forces,  and  loudly  demanded  reform 
both  in  the  manner  of  instruction  and  a  more  exacting  preparatory 
education.  The  battle  for  the  improvement  of  the  school  finally 
found  its  way  into  the  Chamber  of  Representatives  (1861),  and  re- 
sulted in  a  free  offering  of  means  to  help  on  the  purpose.  But,  in- 
stead of  making  a  thorough  reform,  they  contented  themselves  with 
all  sorts  of  corrective  regulations.  They  burnished  up  the  roof  of  the 
school  and  whitewashed  the  fagades,  instead  of  beginning  anew  and 
laying  a  solid  and  enduring  foundation.  Ne^y  professors  were 
added  to  the  old,  until  the  school  had  eight,  which  was  more  than 
any  other  school  in  Europe.  The  clinic  was  improved,  and  many 
other  innovations  made.  Finally,  the  director  was  changed,  but  not 
the  system  of  instruction.  The  matriculatory  examination  still  re- 
mained the  same ;  the  entire  weight  of  instruction  in  the  natural 
sciences  had  to  be  borne  by  one  man,  who  was  at  first  without  as- 
sistance or  sufficient  material  support,  and  at  the  same  time  had  to 
lecture  on  other  strictly  technical  subjects.  Physiology,  the  very 
foundation  of  scientific  medicine,  was  lectured  upon  in  only  two 
sessions,  before  even  the  lectures  on  the  natural  sciences  were  ended, 
and  therefore  lacked  the  necessary  basis.  Empiricism  in  the  hos- 
pital still  continued.  Microscopic  practice  was  begun,  but  very  im- 
perfectly, and  so  was  it  with  everything  at  this  school  as  well  as  the 
other  German  schools." 

The  cause  of  all  these  difficulties  is  easy  of  discovery.     Pro- 


THE  SCHOOLS   OF   GERMANY.  319 

fessor  Carl  Yoit  lias  done  this  in  a  very  thorough  manner.  Accord- 
ing to  hiu),  it  is  not  so  necessiiry  to  consider  the  improvement  of 
individual  evils  which  are  evident  to  us,  but  above  all  a  change 
is  necessary  in  the  direction  of  the  school,  without  which  great  exer- 
tions of  both  teachers  and  j)upils  can  never  lead  to  promising  results. 
The  causes  why  the  Bavarian  school  has  not  developed  into  the  in- 
stitution which  it  was  expected  it  would,  are  to  be  sought,  mostly, 
in  the  absolute  neglect  of  those  basal  conditions  upon  which  such  a 
school  can  alone  thrive.  Such  a  school,  to  thrive,  must  he  j)laced 
upon  a  scientific  foundation.  The  first  means  by  which  this  end  is 
to  be  attained  is  a  general  and  exact  preparatory  education  of  young 
men  before  they  enter  the  schooh  The  preparatory  education  of 
the  students  up  to  this  time  has  been  totally  insufficient  for  them  to 
be  able  to  comprehend  well  the  teachings  of  their  technical  teach- 
ers. To  the  study  of  veterinary  medicine  the  same  degree  of  pre- 
liminary education  is  necesi^ary  that  is  required  for  entering  upon 
the  study  of  human  medicine,  and  without  this  the  best  teaching 
will  be  resultless. 

"  The  second  condition  to  improvement  is,  that  all  students 
must  be  well  grounded  in  the  necessary  natural  sciences  before 
entering  the  school.  It  is  absolutely  certain  that  this  should  also 
be  of  the  same  grade  as  for  the  students  of  medicine.  The  study 
of  the  natural  sciences  in  the  school  itself  must  be  completed 
before  the  technical  branches  of  the  profession  are  entered  upon. 
It  is  impossible  for  the  student  to  comprehend  the  teachings  in 
physiology  without  a  thorough  anticipatory  education  in  physics 
and  chemistry.  The  thorough  study  of  the  natural  sciences  is  the 
only  means  by  which  the  student  can  leani  to  become  a  good  experi- 
menter, or  learn  to  think  logically,  or  understand  the  processes  of  dis- 
eases and  their  products"  (Yoit).  The  present  students  have  never 
learned  to  thinlc,  because  of  the  want  of  a  thorough  drilling  in  sci- 
entific methods;  it  is  this  reason,  and  not  because  of  want  of  disci- 
pline, that  has  made  the  results  of  teaching  at  our  school  so  futile. 
"  Or  is  it  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  favorable  result  that  out  of  twenty 
students,  only  five,  and  of  these  only  two  Bavarians,  successfully 
passed  their  final  examination  after  three  years'  study  ?  The  evil 
is  to  be  sought  in  the  system." 

Only  when  a  rigid  education  in  the  necessary  branches  of  gen- 
eral science  is  required  as  a  preparation,  can  the  teachers  hope  for 
genuine  success  from  the  study  of  the  strictly  professional  branches. 
From  men  thus  educated  can  we  alone  hope  to  select  those  fitted  for 
teachers. 


320  THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF  THE   VETERINARY   SCHOOLS. 

These  unhajppy  conditions  can  only  he  equalized  when  the  educa- 
tional chairs  are  filled  loith  men  whose  education  itself  has  heen 
most  strictly  scientific,  and  when  the  students  themselves  have  a  simi- 
lar exact  foundation  hefore  entering  the  school. 

"  This  has  been  well  seen  by  the  veterinary  profession,  as  is  illus- 
trated by  the  following  resolutions,  drafted  at  the  late  Veterinary 
Congress  at  Frankfort "  : 

I.  "With  reference  to  the  preparatory  education  of  the  German 
veterinarians : 

"  The  same  conditions  must  be  exacted  of  students  entering  upon 
the  study  of  veterinary  medicine,  as  of  those  entering  upon  the 
study  of  medicine  or  special  natural  sciences." 

II.  With  reference  to  the  professional  education  of  German 
veterinarians : 

"  1.  To  gain  a  good  general  knowledge  of  the  elements  of  their 
profession,  a  four-year  course  is  necessary  and  sufficient." 

"  2.  The  veterinary  school  must  be  an  integral  yet  independent 
branch  of  the  universities." 

The  immense  impoi'tance  of  the  last  resolution  can  not  be  over- 
estimated. The  intimate  relation  which  our  domestic  animals  bear 
to  human  health ;  the  value  of  the  studies  of  comparative  anatomy 
and  physiology;  the  immense  importance  of  .the  knowledge  of  gen- 
eral pathology  and  comparative  pathological  anatomy,  are  all  things 
which  have  not  yet  had  their  due  degree  of  appreciation. 

Further,  the  value  of  such  a  union  in  lessening  the  expenses  of 
veterinary  institutions  should  by  no  means  fail  of  earnest  considera- 
tion. The  natural  sciences  can  be  heard  by  the  students  of  both 
branches  of  medicine  in  common,  thereby  doing  away  with  the  ne- 
cessity of  quite  a  number  of  special  teachers  at  a  veterinary  school. 
Such  a  union  is  only  practicable,  however,  at  universities  situated  in 
large  cities,  for  otherwise  it  would  be  imjDOssible  to  fill  the  veteri- 
nary hospitals  with  the  large  number  of  animals  necessar^'^  for  the 
students  to  gain  practical  knowledge  and  dexterity. 


TUE   YETEKLNAKY   LVSTITCTIONS   OF  TRUSSIA.  30] 

THE   VETERINARY  INSTITUTIONS   OF  PRUSSIA. 

The  purpose  of  these  sketelies  of  some  of  the  veterinary  schools 
of  tlie  Continent  is  to  atTt)r(l,  if  possible,  tlic  American  people  some 
idea  of  tlio  causes  which  led  to  their  foundation,  and  of  their  weak- 
nesses as  well  as  their  many  good  points.  While  I  have  entered 
into  details,  as  far  as  the  means  at  my  command  offered  me  oppor- 
tunity, of  those  of  France  and  Austria,  I  have  reserved  those  of 
Prussia  to  the  last,  in  order  to  notice  them  more  in  detail :  first,  be- 
cause many  of  the  regulations  wliich  m'c  shall  at  present  consider  are 
more  or  less  connnon  to  the  German  Emj)ire  ;  and,  second,  because, 
taken  as  a  whole,  I  believe  these  institutions  better  capable  of  serv- 
ing as  a  model  for  us  to  follow  after,  with  necessary  modifications 
according  to  our  peculiar  conditions,  than  those  of  any  other  coun- 
try. I  do  not  claim  for  them  perfection,  as  some  people  seem  to 
think,  nor  do  I  desire  to  ingraft  them  wholesale  and  inconsiderately 
upon  the  institutions  of  this  country,  as  some  ignorant  persons  have 
affirmed. 

The  Veterinary  Institute  at  Berlin. 

This  school  covers,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  the  largest  tract  of  land 
of  any  of  the  European  veterinary  schools.  It  is  situated  on  Loui- 
sen-strasse,  opposite  the  noted  C'haritu  Hospital,  and  occujmcs  some  six 
acres  of  ground.  It  was  founded  in  17S0,  but  was  not  opened  until 
1790.  The  causes  which  led  to  its  foundation  w'ere  the  losses  wliich 
the  nation  had  repeatedly  suffered  from  devastating  animal  pests, 
especially  tlie  cattle-plague,  against  which  every  endeavor  of  the  state 
had  been  utterly  powerless.  In  the  address,  previously  given,  from 
Professor  Feser,  of  Munich,  we  have  shown  the  part  wliich  Cothe- 
nius  took  in  the  matter,  although  the  idea  undoubtedly  originated  in 
the  mind  of  the  king,  Frederick  the  Great ;  the  school  was  organ- 
ized, however,  under  his  successor,  Frederick  AVilliam  II.  The 
school  has  been  under  the  supervision  of  different  ofUccrs  of  the 
Government,  being  at  first  controlled  by  the  chief  ofiicial  of  the 
royal  stables,  Graf  Lindenau  ;  in  1817  it  was  transferred  to  the 
Ministers  of  "War  and  the  Interior;  in  1817  to  the  Minister  of  the 
Medical  Institutions,  etc.,  and  finally,  in  1872,  to  the  Minister  of 
Agriculture,  where  it  still  remains.  The  instniction  at  the  school 
was  at  first  very  elementary,  its  purpose  being  to  educate  young 
farriers,  quite  in  contradiction  to  the  express  purposes  for  which  the 
school  was  supposed  to  be  founded.  Professors  Neumann  and  Sick 
conducted  the  instniction,  the  first  having  been  sent  to  Alfort,  the 
latter  to  Vienna,  to  study  veterinary  medicine  at  the  expense  of  the 
21 


322  THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF  THE   VETERINARY   SCHOOLS. 

Government.  An  apothecary,  Tlatzeburg,  lectured  upon  materia 
medica,  etc.  The  course  extended  over  three  years,  the  education 
having  an  essentially  practical  tendency,  and,  as  Feser  says,  the  sci- 
entific ideas  of  Cothenius  seem  to  have  fallen  on  barren  ground  here 
at  Berlin  as  well  as  elsewhere  in  Germany.  Few  clianges  took 
place  previous  to  1817,  when  complaints  began  to  make  themselves 
unpleasantly  common  with  reference  to  the  total  insufficiency  of 
the  school  to  the  needs  of  the  country,  the  graduates  being  nothing 
more  nor  less  than  somewhat  better  schooled  empirics  than  the  raw 
material  which  had  preceded  them.  William  von  Humboldt,  Min- 
ister of  State  to  Frederick  "William  II,  and  brother  to  the  great 
naturalist,  seems  to  have  been  well  aware  of  these  deficiencies,  and 
to  have  proposed  a  plan  which,  if  it  had  been  carried  out,  would 
have  placed  this  institution  at  an  early  day  much  further  ahead  than 
it  even  now  is  as  a  useful  adjunct  of  the  state  :  he  proposed  to  unite 
it  to  the  university  ;  but,  alas  !  the  "  horsey  element "  prevailed,  and 
his  advice  was  passed  heedlessly  by  through  the  opposition  of  the 
Head-Master  of  the  Royal  Horse,  Yon  Jagow.  Other  untoward  in- 
fluences were  also  exerted  by  the  great  naturalist  Kudolphi,  who 
afterward  became  director ;  it  is  said  that  he  desired  to  use  the 
school  as  a  means  of  enriching  the  collections  in  the  museum  of  the 
university ;  on  the  other  hand,  Thaer,  the  father  of  modern  agricul- 
ture in  Germany,  used  an  influence  in  that  direction,  so  that  these, 
and  probably  other  things,  combined  to  nullify  the  sound  ideas  of  a 
statesman  like  Yon  Humboldt. 

l^evertheless,  the  discussion  was  not  without  benefit,  for  a  re- 
vision followed  and  many  improvements  were  introduced,  among 
them  the  attachment  to  the  school  of  one  of  the  most  important  per- 
sonages in  connection  with  its  history — Dr.  Gurlt,  afterward  direct- 
or. Gurlt  was  a  scientist  jyar  excellence — a  man  wholly  bound 
up  in  study,  investigations,  and  in  making  collections  for  the  mu- 
seum. The  school  gained  great  fame  from  his  presence,  but  the 
benefits  he  conferred  upon  it  were  not  so  much  due  to  his  powers 
as  a  teacher  as  they  were  to  his  literary  productions  and  the  mag- 
nificence and  great  number  of  his  scientific  collections.  I  believe 
I  do  not  exaggerate  in  saying  that  Gurlt  was  in  reality  the  founder 
of  all  our  veterinary  anatomy  of  the  present  day ;  he  certainly  intro- 
duced the  true  nomenclature  of  comparative  anatomy,  and  more 
than  any  other  man  established  the  relation  of  given  muscles  in  the 
domestic  animals  to  those  of  man.  He  was  also  the  chief  worker  in 
the  field  of  the  periodic  development  of  the  foetus  in  animals,  as 
well  as  that  of  the  monstrosities,  and  his  collection  of  animal  para- 


TUE   VETERINAUV    INSTITUTIONS  OF   PRUSSIA.  323 

sites  in  the  museum  of  the  school  is  probably  greater  than  those  of 
any  three  schools  combined.  lie  also  gave  us  the  tirst  book  of  zo- 
opathologieal  anatomy,  which  has  only  been  followed  by  Briickmiil- 
ler.  His  last  work,  on  aninuil  monstrosities,  issued  when  he  was 
nearly  ninety  years  old,  is  an  ornament  to  the  })rofession,  although 
Gurlt's  only  connection  with  the  school  was  as  teacher  and  director, 
he  being  an  M.  D.  lie  gave  as  the  number  of  anatomical  specimens 
in  the  museum  of  the  school  in  18(i9 — (!,4:U8,  which  were  mu.>tly  col- 
lected by  him,  and  mounted  under  his  supervision  ;  this  number 
has  been  steadily  increasing  under  his  able  successor  in  ])athology. 
Professor  Schutz,  so  that,  although  I  have  not  the  catalogue  number, 
there  must  be  at  present  in  the  museum  some  eight  to  ten  thousand 
specimens.  His  collection  of  fetal  specimens,  illustrating  their  peri- 
odical development,  is  one  of  the  ornaments  of  the  school. 

In  1823  another  M.  D.,  Ilcrtwig,  was  attached  to  the  school 
after  studying  veterinary  medicine  at  the  most  prominent  institu- 
tions of  the  world  at  the  expense  of  the  Government.  It  was  these 
two  men  who  raised  this  school  to  the  high  defjree  of  renown  which 
it  enjoyed  up  to  about  1850.  Ilertwig  has  been  one  of  the  greatest 
contributors  to  veterinary  literature  that  has  ever  lived ;  he  is  a  con. 
temporary  of  Ilering,  Ilaubner,  and,  of  couree,  Gurlt,  who  with 
Spinola,  as  practical  author,  served  to  make  the  German  name  so 
famous  in  the  middle  of  this  century.  His  studies  of  rabies,  sup- 
ported by  numerous  experiments,  opened  a  new  light  upon  the  sub- 
ject, and  have  never  been  much  improved  upon ;  these,  with  other 
contributions  to  canine  pathology,  in  unison  with  those  of  Gcrlach 
and  Fiirstenberg,  have  served  to  make  up  about  all  there  is,  or  has 
been  written  upon  the  diseases  of  the  dog,  other  than  a  few  practi- 
cal hints  gained  from  experience.  Ilis  work  on  nuitcria  medica 
was  not  excelled  by  any  in  human  medicine  in  its  day,  and  is 
founded  largely  on  personal  experiments.  His  surgery  and  work  on 
operations  are  by  no  means  antiquated.  As  the  ycai-s  increased  with 
these  men,  the  school  slowly  pa.'jsed  into  decline  ;  its  wonted  activity 
was  no  more,  but  no  want  is  felt  long  in  this  world  before  the  right 
man  is  found  to  fill  it.  Ix'isering  most  beautifully  jiictures  this  con- 
dition in  his  obituary  notice  of  Gerlach,  who  was  called  from  Han- 
over to  fill  this  place  :  ''  Slower  and  slower  went  the  machine, 
which  was  chietly  to  be  sought  in  the  increasing  years  of  her  once 
active  men,  who  were  no  more  able  to  keep  pace  with  the  rapid 
march  of  science,  and  who  also  nourished  the  opinion  that  new 
things  are  not  always  the  best.  But  the  machine  moved  again  with 
new  fire,  partly  with  permanent  and  partly  with  transient  powers. 


324  THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF   THE   VETERINARY   SCHOOLS. 

for  as  well-organized  a  body  as  the  Berlin  school  had  been  since 
Langermann's  time  does  not  so  easily  come  to  a  complete  stand-still ; 
but  that  such  an  evil  condition  should  not  really  occur  a  new  fire- 
man was  necessary — and  he  came.  He  made  fresh  fire,  and  we 
soon  saw  the  glistening  sparks."  As  Gerlach  was,  in  my  opinion, 
the  most  important  character,  the  most  original  genius  that  has  ever 
appeared  on  the  German  veterinary  arena,  if  not  of  the  world,  I 
may  be  pardoned  a  short  sketch  of  his  life.  I  do  this  the  more 
willingly,  as  the  memory  of  this  man  still  waits  due  appreciation 
in  his  native  land,  probably  because  of  the  intense  severity  with 
which  he  sought  to  instill  into  drones  the  grand  fire  by  which  he 
himself  was  impelled  to  sacrifice  life,  health,  and  friendship  for  the 
good  of  his  profession  and  country. 

Andreas  Christian  Gerlach  was  born  at  Wedderstedt,  in  the 
Harz  Mountains,  the  15th  of  May,  1811.  His  parents  were  honest 
peasants,  but  had  little  means.  His  early  education  was  received  at 
the  hands  of  some  childless  relations  who  resided  near  Halberstadt, 
who  soon  learned  to  love  the  pale,  earnest  boy  as  their  own  child. 
The  child  saw  one  day  an  old  veterinarian  in  the  village  busied 
about  some  animals,  which  greatly  excited  his  interest.  He  fol- 
lowed the  old  man  from  stable  to  stable,  from  patient  to  patient, 
and  only  returned  late  at  night  to  the  friends  who  had  adopted  him. 
This  childhood's  experience  seems  to  have  determined  his  future 
destiny.  After  his  confirmation,  his  adopted  parents  sent  him  to 
Halberstadt  to  school,  without,  however,  having  sufiicient  means  to 
cover  his  expenses.  Here  began  a  time  which  indeed  proved  the 
stuS  the  boy  was  made  of,  and  which  developed  in  him  that  char- 
acter which  drew  little  love  toward  the  man  in  later  years,  but 
which  enabled  him  to  overcome  obstacles  and  trample  under  foot 
an  opposition  as  bitter  as  any  man  ever  had  to  combat.  He  had 
first  to  prepare  for  his  entrance  into  the  gymnasium,  and  lived  in 
the  family  of  a  poor  artisan,  who  kindly  gave  him  food.  He  sought 
with  great  perseverance  the  company  of  students  in  the  higher 
classes,  hoping  to  improve  his  knowledge  thereby.  Leisering,  from 
whom  the  above  remarks  are  taken,  says :  "  A  doctor,  with  whom 
he  is  acquainted,  who  lived  at  Halberstadt  at  this  time,  told  him 
some  years  back,  after  Gerlach  had  already  become  a  noted  man, 
that  it  was  not  without  much  feeling  that  he  recollected  how  the  boy 
Gerlach  had  come  to  him  in  his  peasant  clothing  and  begged,  with 
his  eyes  filled  with  tears,  that  he  would  give  him  free  instruction 
in  Latin.  .  .  .  He  finally  completed  his  school-days  at  Halberstadt, 
after  enduring  untold  hardships  and  a  continued  battle  for  the  food 


THE   VETERINARY   INSTITUTIONS   OF   PRUSSIA.  305 

necessary  to  support  life;  but  he  had  attained  his  end,  and  acquired 
the  necessary  kno\vledy;e  fur  admittance  to  a  veterinary  school.'' 
He  gained  this  knowledge  at  great  cost,  and  therefore  highly  ap- 
preciated diligence  in  others,  lie  was  ever  an  advocate  of  higher 
education  for  veterinarians ;  ever  on  the  side  which  tended  to  the 
advancement  of  his  profession  ;  from  first  to  last  he  was  a  scientist 
and  a  student.  He  graduated  from  Berlin  in  1S33,  and  until  lS-1-4 
practiced  his  profession  at  the  i)lace  of  his  nativity  in  Saxony,  lie 
there  published  a  pamphlet  upon  "  Anthrax  in  Sheep,"  which  soon 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  Government,  and  led  to  his  being 
called  to  Berlin,  first  as  assistant  and  then  as  teacher.  In  lb5*J  he 
received  the  honorable  appointment  of  Director  of  the  Veterinary 
School  at  Hanover,  which  he  came  near  losing,  however,  as  he 
placed  as  absolute  condition  to  his  acceptance  that  he  should  have 
the  title  of  "  professor,''  which  had  never  before  been  given  to  a 
veterinarian,  and  which  in  Xorth  Germany  does  not  mean,  as  it  does 
in  these  glorious  and  free  United  States  of  America,  anything 
from  a  genuine  man  of  genius  at  a  university  down  to  a  shoeblack, 
dealer  in  old  clothes,  or  vender  of  (|uack  medicines.  Ilis  promotion 
to  professor  was  soon  followed  by  that  to  privy  medical  councilor. 
"  He  was  in  Prussia  not  alone  the  first  veterinarian  who  received 
the  direction  of  the  veterinary  school  (previously  it  had  always  been 
given  to  medical  men  of  note),  but  also  the  first  veterinarian  who, 
without  being  also  an  M.  D.,  received  the  titles  '  medical '  and 
*  privy  medical  councilor,'  "  Between  1859  and  ISTO  were  made  the 
greater  part  of  those  original  researches,  which  have  gained  accept- 
ance not  only  in  veterinary  but  human  medicine.  He  was  the  first 
to  obstinately  deny  the  abiogenesis  (self-develojnnent)  of  glanders. 
To  his  investigations  is  also  owing  the  excitement  with  reference 
to  the  transmissibility  to  human  beings  of  the  tuberculosis  of  cattle. 
To  the  extreme  obstinacy  with  which  he  defended  these  opinions 
is  due  much  of  the  opposition  which  he  received  from  the  profes- 
sion. In  1870  he  became  director  of  the  school  at  Berlin,  and  began, 
or  rather  went  on,  developing  the  work  of  his  life — the  further  intro- 
duction of  the  scientific  method  into  veterinary  instruction.  So  far 
as  the  future  of  the  profession  in  Germany  is  concenied,  I  think  that 
Gerlach's  last  act  was  l>y  far  his  greatest — that  is,  the  introduction 
of  a  specialist  as  physiologist  to  the  school,  and  the  erection  of  a 
proper  laboratory  and  experiment  station.  I  myself  lived  through 
this,  and  no  one  better  knows  the  bitter  opposition  which  conserva- 
tism and  selfishness  put  in  the  way  of  the  purposes  of  this  man,  whose 
only  desire  was  to  improve  the  school  and  serve  well  his  country. 


326  THE  ESTABLISHMENT   OF  THE   VETERINARY  SCHOOLS. 

Gerlacli  was  said  to  be  a  verj  one-sided  man  by  those  who  felt 
the  power  of  his  opposition ;  but  this  was  only  true  in  so  far  as  it 
had  reference  to  a  man  who  was  bending  everything  for  the  suc- 
cess of  an  ideal  object.  He  was  an  idealist  of  the  truest  type.  His 
entire  character  is  expressed  in  the  saying,  "  Be  sure  you  are  right, 
then  go  ahead."  He  was  a  hard  and  exact  student  of  his  position 
and  responsibilities,  and  tried  his  best  to  fulfill  them.  He  was  not 
generous,  as  the  world  calls  it,  to  the  opinions  of  others.  In  per- 
sons occupying  such  positions,  generosity,  which  in  general  soci- 
ety becomes  a  virtue,  is  nothing  but  a  weakness.  Gerlach  was  ex- 
ternally cold  and  autocratic,  with  the  handsomest  and  cleanest-cut 
face  I  ever  saw ;  but  behind  all  this  coldness  was  a  heart  warm  and 
generous,  which  went  out  to  the  hard-working  student  with  almost 
a  mother's  love.  He  paid  but  little  attention  to  the  opinions  of 
others,  seldom  consulted  with  the  other  professors,  but,  like  a  king 
among  men  and  like  a  Prussian  as  he  was,  ruled  the  school  with  an 
iron  hand  so  far  as  his  powers  would  permit,  l^aturally,  men  lack- 
ing ambition,  in  whom  the  sparks  of  science  found  no  fitting  mate- 
rial to  ignite,  felt  ill  at  ease  with  such  a  man,  and  he  felt  discon- 
tented with  them ;  hence,  during  his  whole  administration  of  the 
school  there  was  a  healthy  excitement  kept  up  between  these  two 
opposing  forces.  But,  had  Gerlach  lived  ten  years  longer,  there  is 
no  doubt  who  would  have  won.  He  died  at  sixty-six  years  of  age, 
at  Berlin,  August  29,  1877,  of  cancer  of  the  stomach. 

Gerlach  died  ten  years  too  soon.  At  present,  at  the  Berlin  school, 
the  practical  education  bears  no  proper  relation  to  the  scientific. 
The  teachers  are  too  bitterly  opj)osed  to  one  another,  the  one  set 
being  purely  scientific,  the  other  representing  the  scholastic-empiric 
school  of  which  Feser  speaks,  which  ruled  absolutely  until  after  the 
middle  of  the  century.  The  German  Government  showed  itself 
unequal  to  the  occasion  when  Gerlach  died.  The  manner  of  ap- 
pointing professors,  so  far  as  the  veterinary  school  is  concerned,  is 
not  so  jus<-  or  good  in  Germany  as  in  France.  It  is  based  too  much 
upon  literary  reputation,  without  taking  into  consideration  that 
ability  to  teach  well,  which  is  as  necessary  as  extensive  knowledge. 
Another  great  evil  in  Germany,  which  all  countries  share  more  or 
less,  is  fear  of  a  young  man.  Other  things  being  equal,  the  expe- 
riences of  years  have  value,  but  men  of  genius  often  gain  more  ex- 
perience in  a  few  years  than  the  average  man  does  in  a  lifetime. 
The  moment  a  man  ceases  to  be  progressive  he  is  of  little  use  to  the 
world.  In  appointing  a  new  director  at  the  school,  there  was  fully 
as  much  political  wire-pulling  as  is  exercised  by  candidates  for  mayor 


THE   VETERINARY    INSTITLTIOXS  OF  PRUSSIA.  327 

or  governor  in  this  country,  and  this  in  Germany,  where  Anieriean- 
isni  is  sneered  at.  There  was  tliis  difference,  the  wire-pulling  was 
done  l>y  men  of  unquestionable  ability  in  some  directions,  but  neither 
one  of  the  candidates  was  fitted  to  carry  on  the  work  of  progress. 
They  were  all  good  men,  but  unfortunately  had  too  much  of  the  old 
school  about  them  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  time.  The  Govern- 
ment seemed  to  be  entirely  ignorant  of  the  great  failing  of  the 
school,  which  is  the  surgical  clinic,  and  everything  pertaining  to  it. 
An  litter  want  of  practical  horsemanship  runs  through  the  whole 
thing.  The  treatment  of  internal  diseases  leaves  nothing  to  be 
desired,  but  the  exteraal  treatment,  in  many  cases,  may  be  truly  ex- 
pressed by  the  English  word  '*  botch."  There  had  never  been  any  real 
practical  surgery  taught  at  the  school.  A  great  many  operations  are 
made,  but  seldom  handsomely.  The  opportunity  to  reform  all  this 
was  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  German  Government.  But  there 
was  no  one  to  inform  it,  and  how  should  the  ministers  know  ?  The 
opportunity  was  there  to  reform  the  surgical  clinic,  but,  what  is  still 

more  to  the  point,  the  man  was  there  also.     Dr. knew  that  a 

school  hospital  is  for  the  purpose  of  instructing  students,  and  that 
the  curing  of  patients,  so  long  as  the  interests  of  the  owner  are  re- 
spected, is  a  matter  of  secondary  importance.  The  death-rate  was 
perhaps  a  little  large,  but  the  number  of  recoveries  in  desperate 
cases  more  than  counterbalanced  it.  Our  clinical  instruction  was 
really  magnificent.  lie  knew,  better  than  any  one  at  the  school,  its 
greatest  failure,  and  studied  night  and  day  as  to  the  best  means  of 
overcoming  it.  One  great  mistake  and  waste  of  material  at  the 
Berlin  school,  one  which  clearly  demonstrates  that  from  the  begin- 
ning the  aim  of  education  in  a  given  direction  was  never  understood 
(it  is  the  same  at  the  French  school),  is  the  way  in  which  the  stu- 
dents practice  operative  surgery.  //  is  plain  hiiU'henj,  not  sur- 
gery. What  sense  is  there  in  merely  cutting  certain  nerves,  opening 
certain  cavities,  ligaturing  an  artery  or  two,  upon  a  living  animal, 
though  it  be  chloroformed  I  The  students  learn  to  cut,  not  to  op- 
erate. Is  cutting  the  whole  of  surgery  ?  In  human  medicine  they 
learn  to  cut  upon  the  cadaver,  and  it  can  be  done  equally  well  in 
veterinary  medicine.  But  I  none  the  less  believe  in  taking  advan- 
tage of  our  ability  of  practicing  operative  surgery  upon  the  living 
animal  in  veterinary  medicine,  when  chlxyroformed.  But  if  this  is 
limited  to  mere  cutting,  it  is  but  butchery.  To  he  practical,  the 
necessary  number  of  horses  should  be  procured  by  the  school,  prop- 
erly groomed  and  fed  ;  the  students  to  operate  should  be  selected  ; 
they  should  be  privileged  to  select  their  assistants  from  their  col- 


328  THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF  THE  VETERINARY  SCHOOLS. 

leagues  ;  then  they  should  deliver  a  lecture  before  the  class  as  to  the 
operation,  its  history,  and  ways  of  performing  it,  the  reasons  for  its 
performance  in  practice,  the  teacher  correcting  or  suggesting  as  the 
student  proceeds.  One  such  operation,  and  sometimes  more,  should 
be  done  daily  throughout  the  year.  The  cutting  exercise  can  be 
under  the  guidance  of  an  anatomical  assistant  on  the  cadaver.  These 
operations  should  be  performed  according  to  the  strictest  rules  of 
surgery,  and  the  different  forms  of  treatment  experimented  with ; 
the  student  operating  should  receive  the  animal  operated  upon  as  a 
patient,  and  treat  hira  in  the  hospital  as  such  ;  the  wounds  should 
be  bound  uj),  the  same  as  in  practice,  and  every  endeavor  should  be 
made  to  improve  the  methods.  All  other  operative  surgery,  either 
as  jDracticed  at  Berlin  or  in  France,  is  a  "  botch"  and  humbug,  cruel 
to  animals  and  degrading  to  the  profession ;  but  the  above  plan  is 
dignified  with  a  scientific  purpose  ;  it  may  serve  two  ends  at  the 
same  time — properly  exercise  the  student,  and  serve  as  an  experi- 
ment by  which  general  surgery  may  be  benefited,  and  some  new 
method  find  proof  or  contradiction.  It  is  in  unison  with  the  true 
purpose  of  a  school,  the  perfect  union  of  theory  and  practice,  which 
makes  up  the  science  of  medicine. 

Were  this  the  only  error  of  the  Government  in  the  management 
of  this  school,  it  would  be  fortunate  indeed.  But,  not  satisfied  with 
making  an  error  in  one  direction,  they  must  equal  it  in  another.  At 
the  school  was  a  young  man  of  marked  genius,  of  genuine  scientific 
spirit,  who  was  ranked  as  prosector  in  anatomy,  the  only  trouble 
being  that  he  knew  too  much,  and  was  not  to  be  brought  into  the 
scholastic-empiric  leading-strings.  The  non-progressive  tricksters, 
unable  to  control,  resolved  to  get  rid  of  him.  As  in  England  in- 
cumbrancers have  often  been  confined  in  lunatic  asylums,  or  great 
men  banished  by  imbecile  governments,  so  they  sought  to  send  him 
to  the  Russian  frontier  to  watch  the  rinderpest.  A  man  of  science 
to  act  as  an  ordinary  policeman !  was  ever  anything  more  ridiculous  ? 
Fortunately,  other  powers  existed.  Instead  of  banishment  to  the 
Russian  frontier,  our  young  assistant  received  government  aid  to  pur- 
sue the  study  of  comparative  anatomy  under  Gegenbauer  and  Wal- 
deyer.  He  was  the  man  above  all  others  to  take  Gurlt's  place  in  vet- 
erinary anatomy  ;  ay,  more  !  he  recognized  the  practical  needs,  and 
his  lectures  were  models  of  scientific  foundation  applied  to  practical 
ends.  One  would  think  that  such  a  man  could  not  fail  of  apprecia- 
tion ;  but  such  was  not  the  case.  He  received  a  call  to  Dresden,  and 
the  Prussian  Government,  blind  to  its  own  interests,  the  direction  of 
the  school  false  to  its  duties  to  the  profession,  quietly  let  him  go. 


TOE   VETERINARY   INSTITUTIONS  OF  PRUSSIA.  329 

The  Buildings. 

As  one  approaches  the  school  from  "  Louisen-strasse,"  he  is  struck 
at  once  by  the  imposing  building  which  marks  the  entrance,  and 
serves  as  a  residence  for  most  of  the  teachers.  The  front  wall  of 
that  part  of  the  building,  which  serves  as  entrance  to  the  grounds 
in  the  rear,  is  embellished  with  busts  of  Aristotle,  Absyrtus,  Ka- 
nuuzini,  Liincisi,  Lafosse,  Pessiua,  Bourgelat,  Kersting,  Cuthenius, 
Langermann,  "NVollstein,  and  Abildgaard,  men  intimately  connected 
with  tlie  birth  of  veterinary  science.  The  accommodations  for  the 
residences  of  the  teachers  are  liberal  in  the  extreme,  and  in  many 
respects  the  suites  are  really  niagniticent.  In  this  building  are  three 
lecture- rooms,  and  one  for  chemistry  and  physics,  with  a])propriate 
cabinets.  The  tine  library,  of  some  ten  thousand  volumes,  espe- 
cially rich  in  valuable  historical  works,  is  situated  in  this  building. 
The  students  are  allowed  to  take  books  home  and  to  keep  them  a 
reasonable  length  of  time.  On  passing  through  the  corridor  of  this 
building,  the  line  grounds  of  the  institution,  with  their  winding 
walks  and  grand  shade-trees,  make  a  most  pleasing  impression  upon 
the  visitor. 

The  anatomy  building  and  museum  is,  strange  to  say,  almost 
spoiled,  so  far  as  appearances  are  concerned,  by  being  situated  in 
a  hollow,  when  sufficient  commanding  ground  was  and  is  to  be  had 
to  show  the  truly  fine  architectural  proportions  of  the  building. 
It  was  drafted  by  the  celebrated  architect  Langhans,  and  the  main 
portion,  which  was  built  under  his  direction,  is  fretpiently  pointed 
out  as  an  example  of  his  genius.  In  the  basement  is  the  dissection- 
room,  with  accommodation  for  two  hundred  students.  Like  many 
older  German  buildings,  it  is  miserably  ventilated,  but  it  would  be 
well  lighted  were  it  not  for  its  abominable  situation.  The  anatom- 
ical lecture-room,  which  is  also  used  for  the  same  purpose  by  the 
physiologist  and  pathologist,  is  without  d(nibt  the  finest  of  its  kind 
at  any  school.  It  can  seat  some  three  hundred  students,  the  seats 
being  arranged  in  an  amphitheatre,  the  entrance  being  in  the  cen- 
ter ;  it  is  lighted  entirely  from  above.  The  preparations  are  ele- 
vate" 1  upon  a  table  from  the  room  below. 

The  Physiological  and  Pathological  Institutes,  two  fine  build- 
ings, costing  with  their  appointments  some  §00,000,  are  something 
which  no  other  veterinary  school  has  in  the  world. 

In  the  Anatomical  Institute  is  situated  also  the  microscopical 
laboratory,  with  microscopes  for  the  class,  and  every  convenience 
for  work  in  this  branch  of  stud  v. 


330  THE  ESTABLISHMENT   OF  THE   YETERIXAEY   SCHOOLS. 

As  we  turn  to  go  toward  the  horse  hospital  we  pass  that  for 
dogs,  with  accommodations  for  about  fifty,  and  fitted  up  with  a 
small  laboratory  for  chemical  and  microscopical  examinations.  The 
attendant  resides  in  the  building.  The  dog  practice  is  very  large 
at  Berlin ;  one  good  feature  is,  that  if  a  dog  bites  any  one  in  the 
city,  he  can  report  it  to  the  police,  and  tlie  owner  tnust  bring  the 
dog  here  to  be  watched  for  the  requisite  number  of  days  with  refer- 
ence to  rabies. 

Tlie  horse  hospital  has  room  for  about  one  hundred  and  thirty 
patients,  many  of  the  stalls  being  boxes;  the  stables  surround  a 
court,  in  which  the  free  clinic  is  held.  A  new  and  handsome  stable 
was  added  during  Gerlach's  direction.  In  this  stable  is  the  labora- 
tory for  clinical  examination.  The  stables  are  fine  and  clean,  but 
they  need  the  genius  of  an  English  or  American  head  groom  to 
make  them  what  they  really  should  be.  The  fees  for  patients  taken 
into  the  hospital  are  in  general  fifty  cents  per  day,  which  includes 
every  expense ;  operations  are  all  performed  free  of  charge.  There 
is  a  special  department  for  animals  affected  with  contagious  diseases, 
or  in  which  the  same  are  suspected  ;  another  for  forensic  cases,  for 
which  a  fee  is  asked  in  addition,  as  well  as  for  the  exact  examination 
of  horses.  In  both  cases  a  warrant  is  given,  and  the  questionable 
animal  must  remain  at  least  three  days,  during  which  time  it  is 
tested  in  every  possible  manner.  Casual  examinations  cost  nothing, 
but  no  warrant  is  given.  There  are  also  special  stalls  for  animals 
with  cerebral  troubles,  so  that  they  can  not  injure  themselves,  so 
far  as  it  is  possible  to  prevent  it.  There  are  two  large  halls  for 
operations.  There  is  also  a  cow-stable,  holding  some  forty  head, 
besides  sheep,  goats,  swine,  rabbits,  etc.,  which  are  to  be  used  for 
experimental  purposes.  The  servants  of  the  school  live  in  build- 
ings on  one  side  of  the  court.  At  one  entrance  of  this  inclosure  is 
the  pharmacy,  treasury,  and  some  teachers'  and  assistants'  residences. 
The  patients  in  the  open  clinic  receive  advice  free,  but  pay  for 
medicines  prescribed  at  the  regular  price  of  the  drugs,  without  the 
cost  of  preparation  at  the  pharmacy.  The  students  prepare  all 
medicines,  under  the  guidance  of  the  assistant  to  the  teacher  of 
chemistry.  The  patients  in  the  hospitals  are  divided  equally  among 
the  senior  students,  each  of  whom  directs  and  looks  out  for  them  as 
if  in  actual  practice,  being  guided  and  questioned  by  the  teachers. 
Each  day  the  students  hear  a  special  lecture  npon  some  selected 
patient,  illustrating  some  special  phase  in  the  progress  of  certain 
diseases.  From  the  large  amount  of  material  at  command,  the 
teacher  is  enabled  to  follow  a  certain  course  in  these  clinical  talks. 


TUE   VETERINARY   IXSTITCTIOXS  OF  PRUSSIA.  33 1 

Practice  and  lectures  upon  auscultation  and  percussion  form  a  very 
strong  point  in  the  clinical  instruction.  There  are,  during  the  last 
half  year  of  a  graduating  class,  two  chusses  of  students  in  the  hos- 
pital, those  of  the  lower  acting  as  assistants  to  their  seniors.  On 
the  graduation  of  the  latter,  the  othei*s  then  have  a  full  year  to 
themselves,  when  the  same  coui"se  is  again  pni-sued.  Everything 
necessary  to  absolutely  perfect  instruction  is  present  at  this  school, 
the  ffuidin":  <jenius  to  set  things  in  the  right  direction  being  alone 
necdeil. 

The  following  statistics  will  give  some  idea  of  the  practical  dis- 
cipline which  this  school  offers  to  its  students,  and  which  is  not 
c(pialed  by  any  other  in  the  world. 

In  1875  the  following  animals  were  received  in  the  hosj^ital,  or 
treated  elsewhere  by  the  students  : 

In  the  clinic,  2,333  horses,  2  cattle,  2  sheep,  3  swine — 2,340. 

In  the  dog-clinic  (dogs,  cats,  etc.,  mostly  dogs) — 3,308. 

In  the  free  clinic,  4,459  horses,  5  goats,  2  swine — 4,466. 

Visiting  clinic,*  208  cattle,  49  sheep,  11  goats,  191  swine — 519. 
Grand  total,  10,093  animals. 

The  number  of  herds  also  visited  was  thirty. 

The  number  of  surgical  operations  performed  at  the  school  was 
542. 

In  1876  the  number  of  patients  taken  into  the  clinic,  or  visited, 
was  11,537. 

In  one  of  the  stables  is  the  forge  of  the  school. 

The  expenses  of  this  institution,  from  the  first  quarter  of  1878 
to  the  end  of  the  first  quarter  of  1879,  were  157,670  marks,  or  $39,- 
417.50;  derived  as  follows : 

From  the  hospital  and  students'  fees 01,100  raarlcs,t  or  $22,797  60 

"      "     state  funds 00,480      "  "     10,020  00 

Total $30,417  50 

The  money  granted  by  the  state  is  more  or  less,  according  to 
the  needs  of  the  institution  ;  and  we  see  that,  during  this  year,  when 
but  little  building  was  carried  on,  the  oxiKjnses  of  the  school  ex- 
ceeded the  income  by  over  $10,0(»(). 

All  the  teachers  of  the  institution,  na  well  as  other  officials  and 
servants,  have  free  residence  found  them.     All  the  professors  and 

*  The  institution  ha^  four  horso.o,  and  suitnblo  vehicle?*   for  this  purpose,  and   such 
visits  are  made  daily,  four  students  at  a  time  going  with  a  certain  teacher. 
f  A  mark  is  a  quarter  of  a  dollar. 


332  THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  VETERINARY  SCHOOLS. 

teachers  have  a  fluctuating  income  of  from  500  to  600  marks  ($125 
to  $150)  per  year,  from  the  examination  fees  of  the  students. 
The  salaries  of  the  teachers  are  as  follows  : 

1.  Privy  Councilor  and  Director  Roloff,  T,SOO  marks,  or  $1,950. 

2.  Professor  Miiller,  anatomist,  5,100  marks,  or  $1,775. 

3.  Professor  Schiitz,  pathologist,  3,900  marks,  or  $975. 

4.  Professor  Munk,  physiologist,  3,600  marks,  or  $900. 

5.  Professor  Pinner,  chemist,  3,600  marks,  or  $900. 

6.  Professor  Dierkerhoff,  special  pathology,  history,  and  clinic, 
3,300  marks,  or  $825. 

7.  Professor  Dr.  Moeller,  materia  medica,  etc.,  and  dog-clinic, 
3,000  marks,  or  $750. 

Teacher,  Mr.  Eggeling,  surgery,  etc.,  1,800  marks,  or  $450. 

All  the  professors  have  besides  additional  incomes  from  positions 
held  by  them  on  the  National  Board  of  Health,  or  on  the  Yeteri- 
nary  Department  of  Prussia,  or  as  lecturers  at  the  University  or 
Agricultural  Academy,  or  as  inspectors  in  the  province  of  Branden- 
burg, or  for  a  district  in  the  neighborhood  of  Berlin. 

There  are  a  number  of  resident  assistants,  who  receive  each  1,200 
to  1,500  marks,  a  portion  of  the  examination-fees,  and  furnished 
lodgings,  fuel,  gas,  service,  etc.  Aside  from  these,  professors  2,  3, 
4,  5,  6,  7,  have  each  a  junior  assistant,  being  young  graduates  who 
have  received  their  diplomas  the  year  before.  These  assistants  re- 
ceive a  stipend  (granted  for  the  half-year,  but  generally  renewed  for 
two  to  three  half-years)  of  from  500  to  600  marks  for  each  session, 
being  from  1,000  to  1,200  marks  per  year.  Two  of  these  assistants 
have  free  lodgings  at  the  school.  The  Professor  of  Chemistry  has  a 
special  assistant,  who  receives  1,800  marks  yearly. 

Other  Officials. 

1.  Two  secretaries,  with  salaries  of  3,300  and  2,100  marks  each. 

2.  A  treasurer,  with  a  salary  of  3,000  marks. 

3.  An  inspector,  who  superintends  the  servants,  with  a  salary  of 
2,400  marks. 

4.  A  messenger,  with  a  salary  of  1,000  marks.  All  these  persons 
are  royal  officers,  and  are  appointed  for  life,  and  can  only  he  dis- 
missed hy  verdict  of  the  Court  of  Discipline. 

5.  A  gardener,  with  a  salary  of  1,000  marks,  who  holds  his  office 
by  a  contract  with  the  directors. 

Servants.— TheYQ  are  fourteen  servants  for  the  stables,  the  Ana- 
tomical and  Physiological  Institutes,  and  the  pharmacy,  receiving 
each  from  60  to  75  marks  per  month.     Also  four  women  who  do 


TUE   VETERINARY    INSTITUTIONS   OF  PRUSSIA.  333 

the  cleaning,  with  from  IS  to  24  marks'  pay  per  month.     Tliey  all 
live  upon  the  grounds. 

The  Students. 

The  students  are  divided  into  two  classes,  military  and  civil,  to 
which  may  be  added  certain  ''  hospitants,''  wlio  are  agricultunsts, 
graduates  of  other  schools,  foreigners,  or  otlur  persons  desiring  to 
hear  certain  lectures. 

The  military  students  form  by  far  the  greater  majority,  and  re- 
side in  a  fine  barracks,  just  outside  the  school-grounds,  and  opposite 
the  military  school  for  horseshoeing,  in  which  they  all  have  to  study, 
and  serve  six  months  in  practice,  and  pass  an  examination,  before 
they  can  enter  the  veterinary  institution.  They  do  not  dress  in 
uniform,  except  at  certain  hours  each  week,  or  when  called  upon  to 
appear  on  dress  parade.  Each  class  has  a  superii.»r  army  veterinarian 
over  them,  who  is  responsible  for  their  attention  to  their  studies, 
and  attendance  at  the  lectures,  and  who  questions  them  weekly  in 
order  to  keep  posted  as  to  their  progress.  Students  who  are  inatten- 
tive to  duty  are  warned,  examined,  and,  if  their  ill-conduct  is  per- 
sisted in,  are  turned  over  to  the  army  to  serve  out  their  time  as 
soldiers.  This  may  take  place  at  any  time  during  the  student's 
course,  even  after  he  has  failed  in  the  second  final  examination,  un- 
less he  may  have  already  served  his  appointed  time  in  the  army. 
Their  general  conduct  is  subject  to  the  control  of  an  army  officer, 
and  they  are  kept  under  very  strict  discipline,  being  sometimes  pun. 
ished  with  confinement.  The  Government  supplies  them  with  a 
small  amount  of  pocket-money — 30  marks  per  month,  I  believe — be- 
sides the  necessary  books,  instniments,  fuel,  attendance,  etc. ;  in  ad- 
dition to  which  their  building  has  lately  been  supplied  with  a  verv 
complete  medical  library,  costing  some  $1,500,  po  that  the  army 
students  have  not  to  go  out  of  their  building  if  they  desire  to  read 
up  any  special  subject,  either  in  human  or  veterinary  medicine. 
Each  military  graduate  must  serve  two  years  in  the  army,  as  an  army 
veterinary  surgeon,  for  each  year's  schooling.  Their  pay  is  not 
large,  nor  do  they  rank  so  high,  or  receive  the  consideration  which 
similar  officers  do  in  other  armies,  especially  in  the  English,  but  their 
expenses  are  also  smaller.  They  have  the  privilege,  however,  of 
studying,  and  enjoying  a  stipend  by  which  they  can  again  visit  the 
school,  and  hear  lectures  and  make  the  examinations  for  the  high 
civil  positions,  so  that  on  completion  of  their  army  service  they  can 
immediately  apply  for  any  vacancies  which  may  occur.  This  privi- 
lege is  only  granted  to  those  who  have  passed  the  fii*st  two  grades  in 
the  examination  ;  those  having  the  best  can  undergo  these  examina- 


334  THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF  THE   VETERINARY   SCHOOLS. 

tiocs  in  two  years,  the  next  in  three,  respectively.  I  can  not  give 
the  number  of  students  at  the  Berhn  school,  but  it  is  not  far  from  two 
hundred.  A  private  letter  informs  me  that  there  are  to  be  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-five  in  the  dissecting-room  in  the  study  of  anatomy 
this  winter.  The  fees  are  very  small ;  for  the  three  years  I  was  there 
as  a  student,  and  the  extra  year,  including  the  examination-fee,  they 
were  not  over  one  hundred  dollars.  All  material  necessary  for 
study  is  supplied  by  the  Government  free  of  expense  to  the  students, 
including  the  use  of  the  microscopes. 

The  course  of  study  and  terms  of  examination  are  the  same  for 
all  the  schools  in  the  empire,  and  were  revised  and  published  March 
27,  1878.  I  consider  they  can  well  serve  as  a  model  for  the  founda- 
tion of  a  school  in  this  country,  with  but  few  modifications.  There 
is  no  matriculation  examination  for  foreigners,  but  they  must  stand 
the  regular  examination  without  change  or  favor.  There  is  no  need 
of  a  matriculatory  examination  for  Germans,  as  they  are  only  taken 
from  classes  of  certain  public  schools,  and  the  standard  is  fixed 
much  higher  than  in  nearly  all  other  Continental  schools.  The 
school  at  Berlin  will  not,  however,  be  what  it  should  be  until  it  is 
united  with  the  university,  which  will  give  it  a  greater  number  of 
special  instructors  in  the  natural  sciences,  at  but  little  extra  expense 
to  the  Government. 

The  following  are  the  regulations  for  the  admittance  and  exami- 
nation of  the  students,  and  are  taken  from  the  "  Central-Blatt  fiir 
das  Deutsche  Reich,"  herausgegeben  in  Reichskanzler-Amt,  April 
5,  1878  : 

I.  Centi'al  2>owers  which  can  give  the  diploma  to  veterinarians  : 
The  diploma  for  veterinarians  for  the  German  Empire  can  only 

be  given  by  the  central  powers  ("  Centralbehorden  ")  of  such  states 
of  the  empire  in  which  one  or  more  veterinary  schools  are  situated ; 
consequently,  at  the  present  time,  by  the  appropriate  ministers  of 
Prussia,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Wtirtemberg,  and  Hesse.  (There  is  no 
independent  school  in  Hesse,  but  the  university  at  Giessen  has  a  vet- 
erinary department.) 

II.  Regulations  with  reference  to  the  qualifications  of  candidates : 
The  veterinary  diploma  is  only  to  be  given  to  such  candidates 

as  have  satisfactorily  stood  the  fixed  examination. 

The  examination  is  divided  into  two  inirts :  1.  In  the  natural 
sciences ;  and,  2.  In  the  technical  branches  of  study. 

The  examination  must  take  place  at  a  German  veterinary  insti- 
tute. 

The  examining  body  consists  of  the  du'ectors  and  teachers  of  the 


THE    VETERINARY    INSTITUTION'S   OF  PRUSSIA.  335 

institute,  with  such  persons  as  shall  be  ordered  to  be  present  by  the 
apjiropriute  minister. 

The  composition  of  the  examining  commissions  in  the  different 
sections  of  the  examination  is  regulated  b}'  the  ministers. 

The  director  conducts  the  whole  examination. 

The  Examination  in  the  Natural  Sciences. — 1.  Conditions  for 
competing.     The  candidate  must  testify  : 

{a.)  That  he  has  had  the  rcHpiisite  education.  He  must  have  the 
proper  certificate  of  having  been  prepared  to  enter  the  first  class 
(''prima")  of  a  gymnasium,  or  of  a  first  class  "real"  school,  in 
which  the  study  of  Latin  has  been  obligatory,  or  of  such  an  educa- 
tional institute  as  is  recognized  by  the  Government  as  of  equal 
standing  with  the  above. 

{h.)  After  having  acquired  the  requisite  scientific  preparatory 
education,  he  must  have  studied  for  three  sessions  (one  and  a  half 
year)  at  a  veterinary  or  other  high  scientific  school  of  the  German 
Empire. 

The  period  for  the  examination  in  the  natural  sciences,  as  well 
as  the  notification  of  the  candidate  of  his  fitness  to  take  part  in  it, 
is  arranged  by  the  directors  of  the  respective  schools. 

The  notification  of  readiness  to  participate  in  the  examinations, 
and  the  certificate  of  his  having  fulfilled  the  above  conditions,  must 
be  handed  by  the  candidate  to  the  directors  and  indorsed  by  him. 
(The  schools  have  especial  forms  for  this  purpose,  on  which  each 
teacher  testifies  to  the  regular  attendance  of  the  students  at  the 
respective  lectures  and  demonstrations.) 

The  following  are  the  branches  in  which  the  candidates  are  to 
be  examined  :  Zootomy,  inclusive  of  histology,  physiology,  botany, 
chemistry,  physics,  and  zoology. 

The  examination  is  oral,  and  public.  Its  aim  is  to  ascertain  if 
the  candidate  has  obtained  sufficient  knowledge  in  the  above  sci- 
entific branches  to  warrant  his  proceeding  with  the  study  of  the 
strictly  professional  ones. 

Only  four  candidates  can  be  examined  at  one  time. 

The  examining  commission  consists  of  the  director  as  chairman, 
and  at  least  three  associates. 

A  complete  account  is  kept  of  the  progress  of  the  examination 
by  each  candidate  in  each  .section  of  the  examination. 

The  examination  in  chemistry  and  physics,  the  "  tentamen  physi- 
cnm  "  of  the  medical  examination,  or  the  })harmaceutical  examina- 
tion, may  be  taken  as  an  ecpiivalcnt  to  the  above  examination  in  the 
same  branches  at  a  veterinary  school. 


336  THE  ESTABLISHMENT   OF  THE  VETERINARY   SCHOOLS. 

The  results  of  the  examination  are  to  be  indicated  as  follows : 

A  judgment  is  to  be  given  on  the  results  of  the  examination  in 
each  of  the  above  branches.  The  judgments  are  as  follows  :  "  Sehr 
gut"  (excellent),  "gut"  (good),  "geniigend"  (satisfactory),  "unge- 
niigend  "  (unsatisfactory),  and  "  schlecht "  (bad). 

The  judgment  in  each  branch  is  to  be  given  by  vote  of  the  ex- 
amining commission.  In  a  tie-vote,  that  of  the  director  (chairman) 
decides. 

The  candidate  has  passed  his  examination  when  he  has  at  least 
received  the  judgment  "  satisfactory  "  in  each  individual  branch. 

The  conclusive  judgment  "  excellent  "  can  only  be  given  when 
the  candidate  has  passed  in  the  majority  of  the  branches  as  "  excel- 
lent," and  in  the  remainder  as  "  good." 

The  conclusive  judgment  "  good  "  can  only  be  given  when  he 
has  passed  in  the  greater  number  as  "  good,"  and  in  the  remainder 
as  "  satisfactory." 

The  conclusive  judgment  "  satisfactory  "  can  only  be  given  when 
he  has  passed  in  the  majority  as  "  satisfactory,"  and  in  no  branch  as 
"  unsatisfactory." 

The  conclusive  judgment  "  unsatisfactory "  is  given  when  the 
candidate  has  not  passed  in  each  branch  with  "  satisfactory." 

If  the  candidate  has  received  the  judgment  "  unsatisfactory " 
in  more  than  two  branches,  or  as  "  bad  "  in  more  than  one,  or  in  one 
as  "  bad  "  and  another  as  "  unsatisfactory,"  he  can  only  receive  the 
conclusive  judgment  of  "  bad." 

Repetition  of  the  Examination. — When  the  candidate  has  re- 
ceived the  conclusive  judgment  of  "unsatisfactory,"  he  may  be 
allowed  a  second  examination  at  the  expiration  of  three  months  ;  it 
is  only  extended  to  those  branches  in  which  the  candidate  has  re- 
ceived the  judgment  of  "unsatisfactory"  or  "bad." 

When  he  has  received  the  conclusive  judgment  of  "  bad,"  a 
second  examination  can  only  be  permitted  him  at  the  end  of  one 
year,  and  is  to  be  extended  over  all  the  above-named  branches.  A 
second  I'epetition  of  the  examination  can  only  be  allowed  a  candi- 
date with  the  consent  of  the  minister. 

The  Expense  of  the  Examination. — For  the  first  examination, 
twenty  marks  ($5) ;  for  a  repetition  of  the  same,  ten  marks  (§2.50) 
more. 

The  Technical  Examination. — For  admittance  to  this  examina- 
tion the  candidate  must  present  his  certificate  of  having  successfully 
passed  the  examination  in  natural  sciences ;  and,  secondly,  he  must 
bring  a  certificate  of  having  attended  lectures  for  seven  sessions  at 


THE   VETEKINAUY    INSTITUTIONS  OF  PRUSSIA.  337 

a  German  vetL'riiuiry  institute,  or  other  German  academy,  and  have 
heard  lectures  on  the  succeeding  subject^,  whicli  must  be  testified 
to  by  tlie  appropriate  teachers:  Zootomy  and  histology,  inclusive 
of  practical  study  in  both  branches;  physiolttiry ;  botany  (anatomy 
and  physiology  of  plants,  classification,  and  ]  tract  ice  in  determina- 
tion of  species;  the  Berlin  school  has  a  special  professor  of  botany 
from  the  university) ;  chemistry,  inorganic  and  organic,  with  ])rac- 
tical  exercisL's ;  physics;  zoology;  general  ])atli()lugy  and  therajieu- 
tics ;  materia  medica  ;  toxicology  ;  pharmacology,  with  practice  ; 
pathological  anatomy,  with  necroscopical  practice  and  attendance 
at  the  demonstrations;  special  pathology  and  therapeutics;  sur- 
gery and  aciurgy ;  theory  and  practice  of  horseshoeing ;  dietetics ; 
breeding ;  obstetrics ;  exterior  of  domestic  animals ;  veterinary 
police ;  hygiene ;  forensic  medicine ;  history  of  veterinary  medi- 
cine; clinical  attendance,  with  practice;  and  visiting  clinic. 

I^otijicatwii  of  the  Examination. — The  period  for  the  notifica- 
tion, as  well  as  for  holding  this  examination,  is  tixed  by  the  director, 
with  the  consent  of  the  minister.  The  notification  must  be  accom- 
panied with  the  proper  attests  from  the  teachers  of  attendance  at 
the  lectures  upon  the  above  subjects,  and  a  short  description  of  the 
principal  events  of  the  candidate's  life. 

The  director  fixes  the  period  for  the  examination  in  the  different 
branches. 

Sections  of  the  Exaynination^  and  the  Regulations  for  the  same. 
— The  examination  is  public,  and  is  subdivided  into  the  following 
sections:  1.  In  anatomy,  physiology,  and  pathological  anatomy;  2. 
In  the  medicinal  clinic ;  in  the  surgical  clinic  ;  in  operative  surgery ; 
in  phannacology  (practical  and  theoretical) ;  3.  The  conclusion. 

The  examinations  in  the  different  sections  follow  in  immediate 
succession. 

No  candidate  can  enter  upon  an  examination  in  a  section  until 
he  has  passed  in  the  previous  one. 

In  the  examinations  in  anatomy,  physiology,  and  pathological 
anatomy,  the  candidate  has  to  follow  the  following  course:  1.  To 
demonstrate  and  open  one  of  the  cavities  of  the  body  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  examining  body  ;  2.  To  explain  an  ostcological  and  syn- 
desmological  preparation  ;  3.  To  demonstrate  and  prepare  an  ana- 
tomical preparation ;  4.  To  prepare  and  explain  histological  j>repa- 
rations  in  the  presence  of  the  teacher;  T).  To  give  an  oral  disser- 
tation upon  a  physiological  subject ;  6.  To  make  an  autopsy  of  a 
disea.'^ed  animal,  or  one  of  the  cavities  of  the  same,  or  to  demonstrate 
a  pathological  specimen,  and  in  both  cases  to  reduce  the  results  to 

22 


338  THE   ESTABLISHMENT   OF  THE   VETERINARY   SCHOOLS. 

writing;  further,  to  prepare  and  demonstrate  pathological  speci- 
mens with  the  microscope. 

The  tasks  in  anatomy  and  physiology  are  given  to  the  student 
by  lot.  The  commission  for  this  examination  consists  of  three 
members. 

In  the  clinical  examination  the  candidate  has — 1.  To  examine 
an  animal  having  an  internal  disease,  and  to  make  the  diagnosis  and 
direct  its  treatment  for  three  successive  days ;  2.  The  same  with  an 
animal  having  some  surgical  disease. 

In  both  cases  the  candidate  is  isolated,  and  has  to  prepare  a 
written  history  of  his  patients  and  their  diseases,  their  pathology, 
treatment,  and  the  probable  results  of  the  case. 

The  oral  examination  takes  place  in  each  case  after  the  written 
descriptions  have  been  handed  in.  The  candidate  must  prepare  the 
medicines  exhibited  to  the  patients. 

The  candidate  has,  further,  to  perform,  demonstrate,  and  explain 
three  surgical  operations  upon  a  living  animal ;  also,  to  demonstrate 
two  fresh  or  dried  officinal  vegetable  preparations,  as  well  as  to 
recognize  two  chemical-pharmaceutical  preparations,  give  their  ele- 
ments, formula,  etc. ;  also,  to  stand  an  examination  in  materia  med- 
ica,  toxicology,  etc. 

The  operations,  as  well  as  the  above-named  medicinal  objects, 
are  selected  by  the  students  by  lot.  The  examining  body  in  each 
branch  consists  of  two  members. 

The  conclusive  examination  can  extend  over  all  branches  of 
study,  so  far  as  they  have  not  been  the  object  of  sj)ecia]  examina- 
tions in  the  above  sections. 

Only  four  candidates  can  be  examined  at  one  time,  which  must 
take  place  under  the  supervision  of  the  director  and  at  least  three 
other  members.  Each  member  of  the  commission  must  occupy  at 
least  ten  to  fifteen  minutes  with  each  candidate. 

A  special  written  report  must  be  made  with  reference  to  the 
examination  of  each  candidate  in  each  branch,  and  indorsed  by  each 
member  of  the  commission. 

The  judgments  are  given  in  the  same  manner  as  before.  The 
repetition  must  take  place  in  the  next  year,  and  may  extend  itself 
to  all  branches  of  study. 

A  second  repetition  of  the  examination  can  only  take  place  with 
the  consent  of  the  minister.  The  written  part  of  the  examination 
and  the  written  attests  of  the  examining  commission  must  be  placed 
before  the  minister  for  approval.  The  costs  of  this  second  examina- 
tion are  sixty  marks  ($15),  and  the  repetitions  fifteen  marks  each. 


TUE  VETERINARY   INSTITL'TIOX.S   OF   TRrSSIA.  339 

If  a  cainliJate  retires  from  the  examination,  a  proportionate  part 
of  the  fees  fur  the  sections  he  has  nut  been  examined  in  ^^•ill  he  re- 
turned. 

(The  fees  for  the  examination  of  the  military  stndents  are  paid 
by  the  war  department.) 

Conclusive  Judgment. — This  is  given  after  the  examination  in 
all  the  sections  luis  taken  place.  It  is  given  by  vote,  and  is  influ- 
enced by  the  judgments  obtained  in  the  sectional  examinations. 

The  judgments  are  the  same  as  for  the  sectional  examinations. 

The  chancellor  of  the  empire  is  empowered  to  absolve  a  can- 
didate from  single  conditions  of  the  examination  upon  reasonable 
grounds. 

The  names  of  the  graduates  are  published  in  the  official  organ, 
from  which  these  regulations  are  taken. 

The  military  students  arc  absolved  from  the  examination  in 
horseshoeing,  having  passed  it  before  entering  the  school. 

The  course  is  extended  over  seven  sessions  (three  years  and  a 
half),  and.  as  the  military  students  must  first  serve  for  six  months 
in  the  military  school  for  farriers,  their  course  of  study  is  in  reality 
extended  over  four  years. 

The  course  of  study  at  the  veterinary  schools  of  Germany  is  as 
follows : 

First  Session  (  Winter). — Introduction  to  the  study  of  veterinary 
medicine ;  physics ;  inorganic  chemistry ;  general  zoology ;  zootomy ; 
dissection. 

Second  Session  {Summer). — Organic  chemistry ;  botany ;  zoology 
of  the  vertebrata  ;  histology  and  embryology ;  physiology  (1) ;  chem- 
ical practice  in  the  laboratory ;  practical  histology'. 

Third  Session  (  Winter). — Physiology  (2) ;  exterior  of  the  domes- 
tic animals ;  breeding ;  dissection  in  anatomy  ;  lectures ;  practice  in 
the  pharmacy ;  repetition  of  lectures  in  chemistry  and  physics. 

Fourth  Session  {Summer). — General  pathology  and  therapeutics; 
pharmacognosy ;  pharmacology,  toxicology,  and  practice  in  the  art 
of  writing  and  combining  prescriptions;  practice  in  pharmacy; 
horseshoeing. 

Fifth  Session  ( Winter). — Special  pathological  anatomy  ;  special 
pathology  and  therapeutics  ;  s]X.*cial  surgery ;  operative  surger}', 
with  practice;  clinic  fur  large  animals  ;  clinic  fur  small  animals. 

Sijcth  Session  (Summer). — Dietetics  ;  obstetrics  ;  animal  pests, 
veterinary  ]iolice  ;  microscopical  practice  in  pathological  anatomy  ; 
clinics ;  visiting  clinic. 

Seventh  Session  ( Winter). — Forensic  medicine ;  history  of  vet- 


340  PRTJSSIAX  REGULATIONS  FOR  COXTAGIOUS  DISEASES. 

erinary  medicine  ;  clinics  ;  visiting  clinic  ;  practice  in  writing  legal 
papers  with  reference  to  veterinary  police  and  forensic  medicine ; 
repetitions  in  anatomy  and  physiology. 

There  is  room  left  for  an  eighth  session  in  the  schedule,  which 
it  is  to  be  hoped  will  be  soon  added  to  the  curriculum. 


THE  PRUSSIAN  LAWS  AND   REGULATIONS  FOR  THE 
SUPPRESSION  OF  CONTAGIOUS  ANIMAL  DISEASES. 

The  first  attempt  at  the  organization  of  a  veterinary  police,  and 
drafting  regulations  for  the  suppression  of  contagious  animal  dis- 
eases in  Prussia,  dates  back  to  1803.  It  has  been  the  object  of 
constant  improvement,  and  it  seems  that  a  translation  of  the  prin- 
cipal parts  of  these  laws  can  not  be  without  value  to  the  people  of 
this  country.  "We  have  nothing  in  a  condensed  form  to  which  our 
legislators  can  refer  when  drafting  regulations  for  the  su2?j)re8sion 
and  prevention  of  contagious  animal  diseases  ;  and  as  these  questions 
are  sooner  or  later  to  take  no  insignificant  part  in  national  legisla- 
tion, their  appearance  here  is  justified. 

The  supreme  supervision  of  the  veterinary  institutions  of  Prussia 
rests  with  the  Minister  of  Agriculture,  who  is  assisted  by  a  resident 
director,  and  a  board  of  assistants,  composed  of  lawyers  and  eminent 
agriculturists.  In  addition  to  this  there  is  a  veterinary  council,  the 
duty  of  which  is  to  give  the  decisive  opinion  with  reference  to  all 
technical  points  in  relation  to  veterinary  questions.  The  active 
members  are  selected  from  the  teachers  at  the  veterinary  school  and 
the  department  veterinarian  of  Berlin,  with  Professor  Yirchow  and 
other  eminent  medical  counsel. 

In  Prussia  there  were  (1879)  36  department  veterinarians,  12  so- 
called  veterinaiy  assessors,  who  rank  higher  than  the  above,  16  fron- 
tier veterinarians,  and  407  district  veterinarians.  These  ofiicers  have 
fixed  remuneration  for  their  official  work,  and  their  traveling  ex- 
penses ;  with  the  exception  of  the  frontier  veterinarians,  they  are 
almost  all  permitted  to  practice ;  the  latter  receive  about  $800  per 
year,  and  enjoy  no  very  enviable  positions,  from  the  difficulties  and 
exposures,  as  well  as  the  comparative  isolation  of  their  positions. 
Each  district  is  further  supervised  by  an  "  imperial  president."  The 
department  veterinarians  are  named  by  the  minister,  with  the  advice 
of  the  council,  from  among  those  district  veterinarians  who  have 


RINDERPEST.  341 

especially  distiiiguislied  themselves  in  the  execution  of  their  duties ; 
the  latter  have  to  pass  special  and  severe  examinations,  both  oral 
and  written,  with  reference  to  the  duties  required  of  them  at  the 
veterinary  school :  those  <j;raduates  who  have  received  the  two  high- 
est judgments,  "very  good"  and  ''good"  as  students,  are  allowed 
to  present  themselves  for  examination  as  district  veterinarians  in 
two  and  three  yeai*s,  respectively,  from  the  time  of  their  qualitica- 
tion  as  veterinarians, 

Attachetl  to  the  German  army  as  veterinarians  are  14  corps  and 
523  other  veterinarians  ;  of  the  latter,  each  horse  regiment  has  a 
superior  veterinarian  (''  Oberrossarzt  "),  the  others  being  subject  to 
him.  The  number  of  civil  veterinarians  in  Prussia  (1ST5)  wius  1,29G  ; 
the  territory  over  which  they  were  each  estimated  to  exercise  con- 
trol was  4-75  square  geographical  miles,  and  the  number  of  animals 
over  which  they  each  were  estimated  to  watch  was  1,544  horses, 
4,592  cattle,  14,421  sheep,  and  2,192  swine. 

Only  those  persons  that  have  graduated  at  a  Gennan  veterinary 
school  are  allowed  to  present  themselves  to  the  public  as  veterina- 
rians. Persons  falsely  representing  themselves  as  such  are  punished 
with  a  fine  of  100  thalers  ($75),  but,  if  unable  to  pay  this,  with  cou- 
liuemeut  in  jail  for  a  period  of  six  weeks. 

The  Laws  and  Regulations  for  Eixderpest. 

"  AVheu  this  disease  breaks  out  in  any  of  the  states  composing 
the  empire  of  Germany,  or  in  a  country  which  is  in  direct  connec- 
tion with  them,  the  individual  goveniments  of  the  empire  are  em- 
powered and  required  to  place  in  active  execution  all  the  regulations 
which  are  intended  to  prevent  its  introduction  ur  further  extension 
in  the  land,  as  follows  : 

'•  1.  The  restriction  and  prevention  of  the  introduction  or  trans- 
port or  commerce  in  living  or  dead  cjittle,  sheep,  goats,  hides,  hair, 
and  other  raw  animal  products,  in  fresh  or  dried  condition  ;  also  raw 
feed,  straw,  junk,  old  clothes,  harness,  stable  utensils ;  also  the  exe- 
cution of  a  stringent  frontier  quarantine. 

"  2.  Quarantining  single  farms,  localities,  or  districts  from  inter- 
course witli  the  surrounding  country. 

"3.  Killing  of  all  animals,  inclusive  of  healthy  ones,  and  the  de- 
struction of  all  things  which  may  act  .'is  vehicles  to  the  infectious  ele- 
ments, when  disinfection  will  not  be  found  sutHcient  for  the  purpose. 

''4.  Disinfection  of  the  buildings,  vehicles  of  transport,  and 
other  objects,  as  well  as  pei^sons,  that  have  been  in  any  relation 
with  the  diseased  animals. 


342  PRUSSIAN  REGULATIONS  FOR  CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES. 

"6.  Expropriation  of  the  necessary  territory  for  burying  the 
killed  animals,  and  of  such  things  as  may  act  as  infectious  vehicles, 
and  burying  the  same. 

"  Eemuncration  is  given  by  the  state  for  such  animals  as  may 
be  killed  by  the  authorities,  and  for  the  land  which  has  been  taken, 
and  also  for  the  animals  of  those  owners  that  have  given  a  timely 
notice  of  suspicion  of  the  disease  among  the  cattle  to  the  authorities ; 
the  price  to  be  paid  for  the  same  is  to  be  fixed  by  impartial  assessors. 

"  This  remuneration  is,  however,  not  awarded  for  animals  which 
perish  from  the  pest  within  ten  days  from  the  time  of  its  introduc- 
tion, or  from  the  time  when  the  animals  introducing  it  have  been 
driven  over  the  frontier. 

"  It  is  the  duty  of  every  one  who  has  gained  knowledge  of  the 
outbreak  of  the  disease  among  animals,  or  of  the  death  of  a  single 
one,  or  even  of  the  suspicion  of  either,  to  notify  the  police  officials 
without  delay.  Any  neglect  in  giving  this  notice  by  the  owner  of 
animals  who  may  have  the  disease  in  his  stables,  shuts  him  oS.  com- 
pletely from  all  remuneration  for  animals  which  have  died  of  the 
disease  or  have  been  killed  by  the  authorities. 

"  The  residents  of  jDest-infested  localities  are  obliged  to  support 
the  Government  officials  in  the  execution  of  the  laws. 

"  The  railroad  companies  are  obliged  to  disinfect  all  cars  which 
have  been  used  for  the  transport  of  cattle,  or  other  animals,  imme- 
diately after  using,  for  such  a  time  as  the  danger  exists  of  the  intro- 
duction of  the  pest  itito  the  land,  or  while  it  is  present  in  any  part 
of  the  empire  itself.  The  companies  are  empowered  to  charge  a 
special  fee  (twenty-five  cents)  to  the  shipper  for  each  wagon  used 
for  such  transport. 

"  The  government  of  each  state  is  responsible  for  the  exact 
execution  of  the  foregoing  regulations.  It  is  also  bound  to  send  in 
official  reports  to  the  central  Government. 

"  The  government  of  each  state  must  at  once  notify  the  central 
Government  and  the  other  state  governments  the  moment  they  are 
obliged  to  forbid  the  introduction  of  animals  from  other  countries, 
or  when  they  are  obliged  to  change  the  regulations,  or  when  they 
declare  them  ended. 

"  The  restriction  of  traffic  in  animals  between  the  diiferent  states 
of  the  empire  is  inaugurated  when  the  pest  has  broken  out  in  any 
single  state. 

"  When  the  pest  breaks  out  in  a  given  state,  the  central  Govern- 
ment is  to  be  at  once  notified,  as  well  as  public  notification  given 
that  the  requisite  regulations  are  in  force,  in  an  appropriate  man- 


RINDERPEST.  343 

ner.  The  profjjress  of  tlie  clisea^c  must  be  frequently  reported  to 
the  central  Government. 

"  It  is  the  duty  of  the  Chancellor  of  the  Empire  to  watch  over 
the  jiroper  execution  of  these  laws.  The  chancellor  is  empowered 
to  make  such  special  regulations  as  the  urgency  of  the  csise  may  de- 
mand, but  must  notify  the  ditferent  state  governments  of  the  same. 
The  dilferent  state  governments  are  obliged  to  support  one  another 
in  the  execution  of  these  regulations. 

"  The  military  may  be  called  in  to  helj)  carry  out  the  regula- 
tions.    The  central  Government  pays  the  expenses  of  the  latter." 

Special  Begulatioiis  to  prevent  the  Introduction  of  the  Pest  from 
Foreign  C  b w\  tries. 

"  TThen  the  pest  breaks  out  in  distant  parts  of  a  foreign  country 
which  is  in  connection  with  Germany,  either  by  railroad  or  canal, 
60  that  animals  could  be  transported  in  a  short  time  into  the  land, 
then  all  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  other  ruminants  from  those  regions 
are  strictly  forbidden  entrance.  This  regulation  extends  to  all  prod- 
ucts from  animals  in  a  fresh  condition,  with  the  exception  of  but- 
ter, milk,  and  cheese.  Traffic  may  be  allowed  in  completely  dried 
hides,  wool,  hair,  and  bristles,  as  well  as  melted  tallow  in  casks, 
completely  dried  bones,  horns,  and  claws,  which  nnist  be  entirely 
free  from  all  fleshy  parts. 

"Kuminants  from  non-infested  districts  of  the  country  in  ques- 
tion may  be  allowed  entrance  at  certain  points,  fixed  by  law,  under 
the  following  conditions : 

"  (a.)  An  official  attestation  must  be  given  that  the  animals  came 
from  a  place  which  has  been  free  from  the  pest  for  at  least  thirty 
days,  and  that  no  pest  rages  within  a  distance  of  twenty  kilometres 
of  the  place  whence  they  came. 

*'(J.)  Their  transport  must  have  taken  place  through  sections 
entirely  free  from  the  pest. 

"  (c.)  The  imported  animals  must  be  strictly  examined  at  the 
frontiers  by  an  official  veterinarian,  and  have  been  found  absolutely 
free  from  all  disease. 

''  These  regulations  may  be  modified  when  the  animals  are  des- 
tined for  a  city  having  a  public  slaughter-house,  and  when  the  rail- 
road connects  directly  with  the  same.  The  importation  can  only 
take  place  in  each  individual  case  with  the  consent  of  the  Govern- 
ment, and  in  each  case  is  to  be  governed  by  special  police  regulations. 

"  All  that  has  been  said  with  reference  to  importation  bears  equal 
relation  to  transport  through  the  land,  or  any  portion  of  it. 


344  PRUSSIAN  REGULATIONS  FOR  CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES. 

"  "When  tlie  pest  breaks  out  in  a  foreign  country,  but  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  the  frontiers : 

"  If  the  outbreak  takes  place  in  a  region  within  forty  to  eighty 
kilometres  of  the  frontier,  the  impoi"tation  of  animals  and  animal 
products,  as  above,  is  to  be  strictly  forbidden  along  the  frontier  for 
a  distance  corresponding  to  the  threatened  danger. 

"  Persons  whose  occupation  brings  them  in  relation  with  cattle, 
can  only  pass  the  frontier  at  certain  places,  and  must  there  and  then 
be  subjected  to  disinfection. 

"  No  exception  to  the  above  regulations  can  be  made  without  the 
consent  of  the  Government. 

"  When  the  pest  approaches  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the 
frontiers,  all  transport  is  absolutely  forbidden  across  the  borders, 
and  a  military  cordon  may  be  formed  for  the  requisite  limit. 

"  The  passage  of  passenger  trains  and  posts  can  only  take  place 
subject  to  appropriate  regulations. 

"  If  the  quarantine  is  broken,  then  all  quarantined  animals  are 
to  be  immediately  killed  and  buried,  as  well  as  articles  which  may 
serve  to  spread  the  disease. 

"  Such  objects,  as  well  as  men,  must  be  at  once  transferred  back 
over  the  boundaries,  if  the  quarantine  has  been  broken,  unless  the 
authorities  feel  confident  of  the  thorough  disinfection  of  the  same. 

"  The  following  regulations  are  to  be  enforced  in  all  places  along 
the  threatened  frontiers  which  lie  within  fifteen  kilometres  of  the 
limits : 

"  A  cattle-inspector  is  to  be  appointed  in  each  village,  who  must 
make  an  exact  register  of  all  cattle  present,  and  of  every  change  in 
number  or  locality  which  takes  place. 

"  These  registers  are  to  be  revised  weekly  by  the  village  authori- 
ties. 

"  The  authorities  are  to  be  at  once  notified  of  any  case  of  disease 
among  the  cattle  of  a  village." 

Regulations  with  reference  to  Rinderpest  in  Germany. 

"  As  soon  as  a  suspicion  of  the  presence  of  rinderpest,  or  the 
death  of  an  animal  from  it,  takes  place  within  the  empire,  or  when 
two  cases  of  death  occur  with  suspicious  symptoms  within  eight 
days,  in  any  place,  the  regulations  for  its  suppression  come  into 
force. 

"  Under  such  circumstances  the  owner  of  cattle  can  neither 
slaughter  nor  kill  the  sick  animals,  or  bury  or  remove  any  that  may 
have  died,  before  the  nature  of  the  disease  has  been  determined. 


RIXDERrEST.  345 

Until  the  latter  lias  taken  place,  the  dead  animals  are  to  be  so  kept 
that  neitlier  men  nor  animals  can  come  in  contact  with  them. 

"  The  local  police  must  call  in  the  services  of  a  competent  vet- 
erinarian as  soon  as  they  have  been  notified  of  the  existence  of  either 
of  the  above  conditions,  in  order  that  the  nature  of  the  disease  may 
be  determined.  If  no  cadaver  is  to  be  had,  the  authorities  may  kill 
an  animal  for  the  p\irpose.  The  results  of  such  examination  must 
be  reported  in  writing. 

"  If  the  disease  is  ascertained  to  be  rindcrj^est,  every  effort  must 
at  once  be  made  to  discover  the  way  in  which  it  was  introduced. 
The  General  Government  is  to  be  at  once  notified,  as  well  as  the 
public.     From  this  time  all  control  regulations  come  into  action. 

"  If  there  exists  but  a  very  strong  suspicion  of  the  presence  of 
the  disease,  a  temporary  (piarantining  of  the  infested  locality  is  to  be 
ordered,  until  the  presence  of  the  disease  is  confirmed  or  the  sus- 
picion removed.  In  doubtful  cases  a  high  veterinary  official  must 
be  called  in. 

"  The  exhibition  {offering)  for  sal^,  or  recommendation  of  pro- 
phylactic or  healing  nmeilies  for  rinJerjhsf,  is  to  be  scDcrehj pun- 
iahed.     Disinfection  materials  are  not  included  in  the  above. 

"  On  the  outbreak  of  rinderpest,  the  holding  of  cattle-markets 
witliin  a  circuit  of  twenty  kilometres  of  the  infested  locality  is  to 
be  forbidden  ;  and,  if  the  circumstances  require  it,  all  cattle  or  other 
markets,  or  large  gatherings  of  men,  are  to  be  forbidden  ;  also  all 
traffic  in  animals  or  their  products.  The  animals  necessary  for  food 
can  only  be  sold  subject  to  the  control  of  the  veterinary  police. 

"  In  the  infested  district  or  locality  it  becomes  the  duty  of  every 
one  to  notify  the  authorities  of  every  case  of  disease,  of  whatever 
nature,  among  cattle,  with  the  exception  of  external  injuries. 

"The  place  (farm  or  stable)  in  which  the  pest  has  broken  out  is 
to  be  isolated  and  controlled  by  watchers,  who  must  n(»t  enter  the 
grounds,  or  have  intercourse  with  the  residents,  nor  allow  any  one 
to  pass  in  or  out,  except  those  especially  legitimatized,  nor  can  any- 
thing, living  or  dead,  be  allowed  to  leave  the  grounds.  Tlie  guards 
must  be  matured  individuals,  and  must  wear  ap]U'«)])riate  badges. 

"  No  one  can  enter  the  grounds  except  those  employed  in  the 
suppression  of  the  disease,  or  ministers,  doctors,  or  nurecs,  when 
necessary  to  the  fulfillment  of  their  occupations.  On  leaving  the 
premises  such  persons  must  be  subjected  to  disinfection.  Signs 
must  be  placed  upon  the  boundaries  of  the  premises  with  *  Rinder- 
pest '  upon  them. 

'*  A  relatively  local  quarantine  must  be  placed  over  the  town  or 


346  PRUSSIAN  REGULATIONS  FOR  CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES. 

village  in  wliicli  the  infected  premises  are  situated.  The  residents 
of  the  place  may  have  intercourse  with  one  another,  but  can  not  leave 
it  except  with  special  permission,  and  this  is  only  to  be  granted  to 
those  who  have  no  connection  with  cattle. 

"  All  animals,  with  the  exception  of  horses,  mules,  and  asses, 
must  be  confined  to  their  stables  ;  if  found  running  about  free,  they 
are  to  be  at  once  killed.  Only  the  above  animals  can  be  used  for 
draught  or  traveling  purposes.  The  removal  of  all  objects,  such  as 
hay,  straw,  manure,  or  other  vehicles  of  infection,  is  forbidden. 

"  When  the  disease  spreads  over  the  greater  part  of  any  locality, 
an  absolute  isolation  of  the  place  is  to  be  ordered.  It  is  to  be 
surrounded  by  guards  (in  this  case  military),  and  all  forms  of  in- 
tercourse strictly  forbidden  among  the  inhabitants,  except  that  of 
necessary  persons  about  their  occupations,  such  as  doctors,  etc. 
Schools  and  public  meetings  must  be  forbidden,  the  beer-houses  and 
hotels  closed.  The  streets  leading  through  such  a  place  are  to  be 
guarded.  If  the  place  is  located  upon  a  railroad,  no  trains  can  be 
stopped  there,  even  though  the  place  be  a  regular  station,  imless  the 
latter  is  so  situated  outside  the  place  that  no  communication  with  it 
is  possible. 

"  All  sick  or  suspected  animals  are  to  be  at  once  killed.  Cattle 
are  always  to  be  considered  as  '  suspected '  as  soon  as  they  have  stood 
in  the  same  stable  with  diseased  ones,  or  have  had  the  same  servants, 
drinking-utensils,  etc.,  which  have  been  used  about  the  sick  ones. 

"  The  central  powers  can  order  the  killing  of  healthy  animals 
when  warranted  by  the  circumstances.  In  large  cities,  and  in 
slaughter-houses  which  are  under  the  control  of  the  veterinary  po- 
lice, the  sale  of  the  skins  and  flesh  of  cattle  which  have  been  found 
healthy  in  both  a  living  and  slaughtered  condition  may  be  allowed. 
The  slaughtering  must  take  place  under  the  supervision  of  the  vet- 
erinary police,  and  only  in  special  places.  The  flesh  and  inner  or- 
gans can  only  be  removed  after  they  have  entirely  cooled  off,  and 
the  skin"}  when  they  are  completely  dried,  or  have  lain  in  lime- 
water  (1  to  60)  for  three  days  previously. 

"  The  animals  which  have  been  killed  by  the  authorities  are  to 
be  buried  in  places  distant  from  the  public  ways,  and  where  no 
cattle  can  gain  access.  Such  places  are  to  be  fenced  in,  and  to  be 
planted  with  a  vegetation  which  grows  rapidly  and  sends  down  deep 
roots  into  the  earth.  The  excavation  must  be  so  deep  that  at  least 
six  feet  of  earth  hes  upon  the  cadavers.  The  persons  employed  in 
this  service  must  be  residents  of  the  place,  and  such  as  do  not  own 
cattle  themselves,  or  come  in  contact  with  them.     TThen  the  work 


RIXDERPEST.  347 

is  completed  tlicy  must  be  subjected  to  disinfection.  Horses  or  men 
must  be  used  for  the  removal  of  the  cadavers,  and  the  conveyance 
used  for  this  purpose  must  be  thorougldy  cleansed  and  disinfected. 
The  animals  removed  must  be  so  placed  upon  tlie  vehicles  that  no 
part  of  them  can  touch  the  ground,  or  any  blood,  hair,  etc.,  drop 
from  them  upon  it  on  the  way  to  the  burying-place.  The  hides  of 
the  slauglitered  animals  must  be  so  cut  as  to  destroy  their  value, 
and  the  cadavers  saturated  in  crude  petroleum  or  carbolic-acid  solu- 
tion. 

"■  A  stable  in  which  diseased  animals  have  lived  must  be  at  once 
thoroughly  cleansed  and  disinfected.  The  manure  is  to  be  burned, 
or  saturated  with  disinfectants.  Nothing  in  the  stable  is  to  be  re- 
moved from  it." 

Regulations  after  the  Pest  has  come  to  an  End. 

"  The  pest  may  be  considered  ended  in  any  locality  when  all  the 
cattle  have  been  killed,  or  are  dead,  or  when  three  weeks  have 
elapsed  since  the  last  case  of  death,  or  slaughtering  of  diseased  ani- 
mals, or  such  as  liave  cohabited  with  them,  and  when  the  thorough 
disinfection  of  the  infested  stables  has  taken  place. 

"  The  disinfection  must  be  begun  and  executed  according  to  the 
circumstances,  so  soon  as  all  the  animals  have  been  removed.  It 
must  also  take  place  if  all  the  animals  have  been  killed,  though  not 
a  single  case  of  pest  has  been  found  among  them. 

"  The  disinfection  can  only  take  place  upon  official  notice,  and 
under  the  supervision  of  the  proper  officers.  The  disinfection  be- 
gins with  again  opening  the  stable,  which  must  take  place  within 
twenty-four  hours  after  the  removal  of  the  animals,  and  care  must 
be  taken  to  give  the  air  the  freest  possible  circulation.  The  manure 
is  to  be  carried  out  and  burned,  or  taken  to  places  where  no  cattle 
can  gain  access  within  the  next  three  months,  and  deeply  buried. 
The  tluids  in  the  drains,  or  yards,  are  to  be  disinfected  with  sulphu- 
ric acid  and  chloride  of  lime,  and  then  led  into  deep  holes  and  cov- 
ered up.  The  surface  of  the  plastering  upon  the  walls  is  to  be 
scraped  off;  the  walls  must  then  be  whitewashed.  The  wood-work 
is  to  be  washed  with  liot  potash-water,  and,  in  a  few  days,  washed 
with  chloride-of-lime  solution.  The  floor  is  to  be  taken  out  and  re- 
placed ;  if  of  earth,  dug  out  one  foot  deep  and  replaced  with  fresh 
earth  ;  if  of  pavement,  replaced  with  new,  or  the  old  must  be  com- 
pletely cleansed  and  disinfected.  "Wooden  floors  must  be  taken  out 
and  burned,  or  thoroughly  cleansed  and  disinfected.  The  cribs, 
utensils,  etc.,  must  be  cleansed  and  disinfected.     After  all  this  has 


348  PRUSSIAN  EEGULATIONS  FOR   CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES. 

been  done,  the  stable  must  be  opened  freelj  to  the  air  for  fourteen 
consecutive  days.  In  disinfecting,  only  such  persons  can  be  em- 
ployed as  have  no  cattle,  or  have  nothing  to  do  with  them.  They 
can  not  leave  the  premises  until  the  work  has  been  completed,  and 
must  then  change  their  clothes  and  be  thoroughly  disinfected.  The 
clothes  used  by  them  must  be  thoroughly  washed,  etc. 

"  Even  after  complete  cleansing  and  disinfection  of  an  infested 
stable  have  taken  place,  and  after  all  restrictions  have  come  to  an  end 
in  the  locality,  new  animals  can  not  be  bought  and  put  in  them  in 
less  than  three  weeks  from  the  time  the  place  was  declared  pest-free, 
and  then  only  with  the  consent  of  the  authorities. 

"  Grazing-places  which  have  been  used  or  passed  over  by  diseased 
or  suspected  animals  can  only  be  again  used  after  the  lapse  of  at 
least  two  months. 

"  The  Government  can  only  give  permission  to  use  the  places 
which  have  been  taken  for  the  burial  of  the  killed  or  dead  animals. 

"  No  cattle-markets  can  be  held  at  such  places  within  three  weeks 
from  the  time  they  have  been  declared  pest-free." 

Most  stringent  regulations  exist,  controlling  the  disinfection  and 
cleansing  of  freight-cars  by  the  railroad  companies  every  time  they 
have  been  used  for  the  transj)ort  of  any  species  of  domestic  animals. 
This  cleansing  must  take  place  under  the  supervision  of  a  state 
official.  The  disinfection  must  be  effected  either — 1.  By  means  of 
scalding-hot  water,  after  thorough  cleansing ;  2.  By  scalding-hot 
water  and  caustic  potash — 500  grammes  to  100  litres  of  water ;  3. 
Or,  by  other  disinfectants  which  are  acknowledged  as  sufficient  by 
the  Government. 

All  utensils,  unloading-platforms,  etc.,  must  also  be  subjected  to 
the  same  course. 

The  Prussian  Regulations  for  the  Suppression  of  Anthrax; 
THE  Foot-and-Mouth  Disease  of  Cattle,  Sheep,  and  Swine  ; 
THE  Contagious  Pleuro-pneumonia  of  Cattle  ;  Glanders  of 
the  Horse,  Mule,  and  Ass  ;  the  Yariola  of  Sheep  ;  the 
Genital  Disease  of  Horses  and  Cattle  ("  Maladie  du 
CoiT ") ;  Scabies  of  the  Horse  and  Sheep,  and  Rabies  of 
all  Domestic  Animals. 

Of  the  Notification  of  their  Presence^  or  the  Suspicion  of  the  same. 

"  The  owner  of  domestic  animals  is  obliged  to  at  once  notify  the 

local  police  authorities  of  an  outbreak  of  either  of  the  above  diseases 


ANTHRAX,   ETC.  349 

in  Lis  stables,  and  of  all  suspicious  phenomena  'wliicli  justify  the  ex- 
pectation of  the  presence  of  such  a  disease. 

"  The  same  responsibility  rests  with  those  intrusted  by  the  owner 
with  the  care  of  the  animals  ;  further,  those  persons  who  accompany 
animals  in  transit ;  and  especially  is  this  the  case  when  strange 
animals  are  intrusted  to  their  care  and  introduced  into  the  stables, 
yards,  or  pastures  of  the  owner. 

"  Veterinary  surgeons,  and  all  those  persons  who  make  a  prac- 
tice of  treating  the  diseases  of  animals,  inclusive  of  those  employed 
at  knacker  establishments,  are  obliged,  under  penalty  of  the  law,  to 
notify  the  proper  authorities,  either  of  the  outbreak  of  any  of  the 
naiiied  diseases,  or  of  the  appearance  of  any  phenomena  which  at 
all  justify  a  suspicion  of  their  existence. 

"  It  is  the  duty  of  the  local  police  to  at  once  notify  the  official 
veterinarian,  when  they  have  received  notification,  or  in  any  other 
way  acquired  knowledge,  of  the  outbreak  of  an  animal  pest,  or  of 
the  suspicion  of  its  existence,  in  order  to  have  a  technical  opinion 
upon  the  same. 

"  The  state  veterinarian  must  ascertain,  and  report  in  writing, 
the  nature,  condition,  and  cause  of  the  disease,  and  plainly  state 
whether  it  is  an  infectious  disease  or  only  a  suspicious  case. 

"  In  peremptory  cases,  the  veterinary  official  may  at  once  pro- 
ceed, without  waiting  for  authority  from  the  j^olice  authorities,  and 
order  the  immediate  (quarantining  and  isolation  of  the  diseased  or  sus- 
pected animals,  and  in  necessary  cases  appoint  a  guard  over  the  same. 

"  AVhen  this  is  the  case,  the  causes  for  action  must  be  given  by 
the  veterinary  official  in  writing  to  the  owner,  or  his  representa- 
tives, as  well  as  to  the  local  police  authority. 

"  The  selectman,  or  other  supervising  officer  of  the  town  or  local- 
ity, must  order  the  temporary  guarding  of  the  infected  or  suspected 
stable,  or  locality,  upon  requisition  of  the  official  veterinarian. 

"  In  order  to  confirm  a  suspicion,  the  local  police  authorities 
may  condemn  and  slaughter  a  suspected  animal ;  the  results  of  the 
autopsy  must  be  reduced  to  writing  (upon  the  official  blanks)  by  the 
state  veterinarian.  If  the  presence  of  a  contagious  disease  is  con- 
firmed, the  police  have  to  at  once  order  the  execution  of  the  neces- 
sary regulations,  and  give  notice  thereof  according  to  the  prescribed 
forms. 

"The  owner  may  also  call  in  the  services  of  an  approved  veteri- 
narian in  all  those  cases  where  a  suspected  animal  is  condemned 
and  killed  by  the  authorities,  in  order  to  establish  the  true  nature 
of  the  disease. 


350  PRUSSIAN  REGULATIONS  FOR  CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES. 

"  In  those  cases  where  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  nature 
of  the  disease  in  question  exists  between  the  veterinarian  of  the 
police  and  that  of  the  owner,  the  police  may  call  in  the  services  of 
a  department  veterinarian,  who  must  make  his  report  in  writing ; 
the  opinion  of  the  latter  is  decisive,  and  the  police  must  proceed  ac- 
cordingly. 

"  Official  veterinarians  have  to  supervise  all  cattle  and  horse 
markets,  or  all  gatherings  where  animals  are  brought  for  the  pur- 
pose of  sale  or  barter. 

"  The  district  veterinary  authorities  are  authorized  to  extend  the 
same  regulations  to  cattle,  horse,  or  animal  fairs  or  exhibitions." 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  veterinarian  to  at  once  notify  the  police,' in 
all  cases,  of  the  presence  or  suspicion  of  infectious  or  contagious  dis- 
eases among  animals  so  collected,  which  is  to  be  followed  by  order- 
ing into  action  the  appropriate  regulations.  If  there  is  danger  in 
delay,  the  veterinarian  is  authorized  to  anticipate  the  action  of  the 
police  by  isolating  and  guarding  the  diseased  or  suspected  animals. 
The  expenses  of  the  supervision  of  cattle  and  horse  markets  or  fairs 
by  the  official  veterinarian  must  be  borne  by  the  directors  of  the 
same. 

Restriction  of  the  Travel  or  Use  of  Animals. 

"  The  isolation,  guarding,  or  police  supervision  of  an  animal,  or 
animals,  affected  with  a  contagious  disease,  or  in  which  such  is  sus- 
pected. The  owner  of  such  an  animal  is  obliged  (upon  demand) 
to  make  such  arrangements  that  it  can  not  leave  its  confinement 
while  under  observation,  and  that  it  is  kept  free  from  all  contact 
with  other  animals. 

"  Restrictions  as  to  use,  or  the  transport  of  diseased  or  suspected 
animals,  or  the  products  from  the  same,  or  of  such  objects  as  have 
been  in  relation  with  the  diseased  or  suspected  animals,  which  may 
give  rise  to  the  extension  of  the  disease. 

"  The  use  of  common  grazing-grounds  is  to  be  forbidden  ani- 
mals from  different  stables ;  further,  the  use  of  common  drinking- 
places,  and  all  intercourse  between  diseased  or  suspected  animals  in 
any  way. 

"  Dogs  are  forbidden  to  run  about  free. 

"When  the  official  veterinarian  has  proven  the  presence  of 
a  contagious  disease,  the  stables,  farms,  villages,  or  localities  in 
which  said  animals  are  kept  may  be,  according  to  circumstances, 
subjected  to  quarantine,  so  that  no  connection  may  be  had  with 
them,  or  with  objects  which  could  serve  as  vehicles  of  the  infec- 
tious elements.     The  quarantine  can  only  extend  to  a  town,  or  vil- 


ANTHRAX,   ETC.  351 

lage,  or  district,  when  the  nature  of  the  pest  is  sueli  as  to  threaten 
with  dauij^er  the  greater  number  of  the  animals  (of  a  susceptible 
species)  of  the  locality.  The  owner  is  obliged  to  do  all  in  his  power 
to  support  the  execution  of  the  regulations.'' 

Inoculation. — "  The  inoculation  of  animals  exposed  to  infec- 
tion can  only  take  place  in  those  cases  allowed  by  law,  and  under 
the  prescribed  restrictions.  The  inoculation  can  only  take  place 
under  the  observation  of  the  state  veterinarian." 

A  nth  rax. — Charhon. 

"When  the  presence  of  anthrax  has  been  determined  in  the 
manner  fixed  by  law,  or  when  there  is  reason  to  fear  an  exten- 
sion of  the  disease,  tiie  police  authorities  are  empowered  to  put  in 
action  the  regulations  for  its  suppression  without  waiting,  in  each 
case,  for  the  opinion  of  the  state  veterinarian." 

Iit'<julatlons  against  its  Extension.  —  "  The  police  authorities 
and  the  state  veterinarians  are  obliged  to  make  known  to  the 
owners,  and  those  persons  who  have  the  care  of,  or  that  may 
come  in  contact  with,  animals  diseased  with  anthrax,  the  danger 
which  alwavs  exists  of  its  transmission  to  human  beinjrs,  and  to 
warn  them  to  have  care  in  their  relation  with  such  animals. 

"  In  the  stables  where  such  animals  are,  care  must  be  taken  that 
the  proper  disinfectants  are  always  on  hand  for  the  use  of  persons 
who  have  the  sick  animals  in  charge. 

"  The  sick  animals  must  be  at  once  isolated  from  the  healthy 
ones,  and  the  stables  quarantined.  It  is  the  duty  of  owners  of  the 
animals  to  make  such  arrangements  as  will  insure  the  complete  car- 
rying out  of  the  above  regulation,  so  that  no  contact  can  take  place 
between  healthy  animals  and  the  sick  ones,  their  excretions,  or  tlie 
utensils  used  about  them.  No  other  persons  than  those  engaged  in 
the  care  of  the  sick  animals  must  be  allowed  admittance  to  the 
stables.  The  stables  in  which  the  sick  animals  are  isolated  must 
be  kept  dark,  so  as  to  keep  flies  away,  and  daily  subjected  to  a  slight 
fumigation  with  chlorine-gas. 

'*  When  the  disease  acquires  a  pest-like  extension,  the  local 
authorities  are  authorized  to  subject  all  the  animals  in  the  infected 
place,  or  places,  of  the  same  species  as  those  infected,  to  stable 
quarantine.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  owners  to  8uj)port  this  regula- 
tion. The  quarantining  may  be  limited  to  single  divisions  of  the 
animals  in  question,  when  the  official  veterinarian  considers  such  a 
course  warranted  by  the  circumstances.  The  sick  animals,  in  such 
cases,  are  to  be  isolated  in  special  stables  from  the  healthy  ones. 


352  PRUSSIAN  REGULATIONS  FOR  CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES. 

"  All  slaughtering  of  the  diseased  or  suspected  animals,  or  the 
sale  or  use  of  any  parts  of  the  same,  the  milk,  flesh,  or  hair,  is  to  be 
forbidden.  All  those  animals  are  to  be  considered  as  suspicious 
which  have  been  in  relation  with  diseased  ones  within  a  period  of 
four  days.  The  performance  of  surgical  operations  upon  animals 
diseased  with  anthrax,  or  in  which  the  same  is  suspected,  can  only 
be  made  by  approved  veterinarians,  and  after  the  diseased  or  sus- 
pected animals  have  been  carefully  isolated. 

"  The  cadavers  of  anthrax-diseased  animals,  or  of  such  as  have 
been  killed,  can  only  be  opened  by  approved  veterinarians,  and 
then  only  with  the  consent  of  the  police.  Skinning  of  the  cadavers 
is  to  be  strictly  forbidden.  Until  the  cadavers  have  been  thor- 
oughly destroyed,  they  must  be  kept  isolated  and  securely  covered 
with  earth,  straw,  or  some  such  material,  and  carefully  guarded,  so 
that  other  animals,  and  especially  flies  and  insects,  can  not  come  in 
contact  with  them. 

"  The  regulations  herein  mentioned  in  the  first  part  are  not  to 
be  applied  to  such  animals  as  are  subject  to  the  control  of  the  state 
veterinary  schools  or  academies,  where  they  are  kept  for  the  pur- 
poses of  such  institutions. 

"  The  cadavers  are  to  be  destroyed  as  quickly  as  possible,  when 
convenient  by  chemicals  or  by  burning ;  but,  when  this  is  not  the 
case,  by  deep  burying,  after  the  hide  has  been  so  cut  as  to  destroy 
its  value.  The  flesh  is  to  be  spoiled  by  saturation  with  petroleum, 
tar,  or  some  such  material.  The  place  of  burial  is  to  be  determined 
by  the  local  police.  The  cadavers  can  only  be  transported  in  closed 
wagons,  or  so  covered  that  no  part  of  the  body  is  exposed,  and  so 
that  no  dropping  of  blood  or  excretions  can  take  place.  The  burial- 
places  must  be  dug  out  so  deep  that  at  least  six  feet  of  earth  lies 
upon  the  cadavers.  When  the  latter  are  covered  with  lime,  the 
holes  need  be  no  deeper  than  to  permit  of  three  feet  of  earth  cover- 
ing the  cadavers.  The  burial-places  must  be  paved  with  stone,  and 
must  remain  in  this  condition  for  a  period  of  three  years ;  where 
this  is  impossible,  they  must  be  so  inclosed  that  no  animals  can  gain 
access  to  them.  During  this  time  such  places  must  not  be  used 
either  for  agricultural  or  grazing  purposes.  These  last  regulations 
have  equal  relation  to  wild  animals  which  have  perished  or  been 
killed  from  anthrax. 

"  Excrements,  blood,  and  other  refuse  from  animals  diseased 
with  or  which  have  died  of  anthrax,  as  well  as  the  manure,  hay,  and 
straw  in  their  stalls,  must  be  either  burned  or  buried.  "When  the 
disease  acquires  an  enzootic  extension,  a  weekly  examination  of  the 


ANTHRAX,  ETC.  353 

animals  in  the  infected  locality  may  be  ordered  by  the  police ;  it 
must  be  performed  by  a  state  veterinarian.  When  the  invasion  is 
ended,  the  police  have  to  see  that  proper  cleansing  and  disinfection 
of  the  premises  take  place. 

"  The  action  of  the  above  regulations  ceases — 

"  1.  In  isolated  cases,  when  the  diseased  animals  have  recovered 
or  are  dead  or  have  all  been  killed,  the  cadavers  removed,  and  the 
locality  thoroughly  cleansed  and  disinfected. 

"  2.  In  enzootic  outbreaks,  when  fourteen  days  have  elapsed 
since  the  last  diseased  animal  died  or  has  been  killed,  and  after 
cleansing  and  disinfection  have  taken  place  according  to  law." 

The  ^^Foot-and-Moidh  Disease  "  of  Cattle^  S/ieepy  Goats,  and  Sioine. 

"  When  an  outbreak  of  this  disease  has  been  confirmed  under 
conditions  which  threaten  its  rapid  extension  among  the  above- 
named  species  of  our  domestic  animals,  the  police  may  at  once  order 
into  action  the  necessary  protective  regulations  without,  in  every 
case,  waiting  for  the  opinion  of  the  state  veterinarian. 

"  The  police  authorities  nuist  notify  the  public,  in  the  manner 
fixed  by  law,  of  the  first  outbreak  of  this  disease  among  the  animals 
of  a  district.  At  the  same  time  they  must  warn  the  people  against 
the  danger  of  infection  from  the  consumption  of  uncooked  milk 
from  diseased  animals. 

"  The  infected  localities  must  be  made  known  to  the  public  by 
means  of  inscriptions,  '  Foot-and-Mouth  Disease,'  at  prominent 
points. 

"  The  police  must  place  the  following  restrictions  upon  the 
owner  and  inhabitants  of  the  infected  localities :  The  diseased  ani- 
mals— swine,  sheep,  and  cattle — or  such  as  are  in  the  stables  with 
them,  must  be  restricted  to  the  same.  Healthy  animals  of  the  above 
species  from  non-infected  stables  may  be  used  for  agi'icultural  pur- 
poses. But  they  can  not  leave  the  grounds  of  the  owner  without 
special  permission  from  the  police,  which,  as  a  rule,  is  not  to  be 
withheld  when  the  animals  to  be  removed  are  to  be  at  once  slaugh- 
tered. Until  the  invasion  has  been  declared  at  an  end,  the  manure 
from  the  infected  farm  can  not  be  removed  across  or  upon  ways 
which  are  passed  over  by  animals  of  the  same  species  from  other 
farms  or  places. 

"Raw  food  can  not  be  removed  from  the  infected  stables.   Hides 

can  only  be  removed  in  a  completely  dried  condition.     The  owner 

can  not  allow  strangers,  or  pei*sons  uninterested  in  the  care  of  the 

sick  animals,  into  the  stable ;  and  also  must  have  care  that  those 

23 


354  PRUSSIAN  REGULATIONS  FOR   CONTAGIOUS   DISEASES. 

persons  Laving  tlie  sick  animals  in  charge  do  not  leave  the  place 
without  first  washing  their  hands,  and  changing  the  clothing  and 
shoes  they  have  used  about  thetn.  Dealers  in  animals  and  butchers 
are  forbidden  to  enter  the  infected  grounds. 

"  The  grazing  of  the  sick  animals,  or  those  in  the  stable  with 
them,  is  to  be  forbidden  when  the  situation  of  the  fields  is  such  that 
grazing  them  is  connected  with  danger  of  the  extension  of  the  dis- 
ease to  other  animals.  The  sick  animals  and  those  with  them  may 
be  confined  to  their  stables  by  the  police,  when  it  is  impossible  for 
the  owner  to  comply  with  the  restrictions  necessary  to  the  preven- 
tion of  the  disease  extending. 

"  The  sale  of  the  milk  in  an  uncooked  condition  for  human  con- 
sumption is  forbidden. 

"  When  the  disease  has  acquired  an  enzootic  extension,  all  animal 
markets,  except  those  for  horses,  are  to  be  forbidden  in  the  locality, 
and,  when  the  circumstances  require  it,  in  adjoining  localities.  In 
such  cases  the  police  may  forbid  ruminants  being  driven  through 
the  streets  of  the  infected  district.  The  removal  of  these  animals 
from  them  can  only  take  place  with  the  consent  of  the  authorities. 
This  permission  shall  not  be  denied  when  the  animals  are  from  non- 
infected  stables,  and  are  destined  for  immediate  slaughter.  In  these 
cases  the  removal  of  manure  can  only  take  place  from  the  infected 
stables  unc^er  the  control  of  the  police.  Signs  bearing  upon  them 
'Foot-and-Mouth  Disease'  must  be  placed  upon  the  roads  approach- 
ing the  infected  district. 

"  "When  the  disease  appears  among  animals  at  grass,  the  police 
must  make  such  restrictions  and  post  such  guards  that  animals  from 
these  herds  can  not  be  driven  off  or  others  upon  the  infected  pas- 
tures. When  this  is  impossible,  the  diseased  animals  must  be  re- 
moved to  places  where  they  can  be  properly  confined,  and  the  graz- 
ing-places  isolated  or  plowed  up  with  horses.  Such  grazing-places 
must  be  indicated  with  the  previously  mentioned  inscriptions. 
Strangers  and  cattle-dealers  are  to  be  kept  distant  from  them. 

"  When  the  disease  appears  among  droves  or  animals  in  the  way 
of  transport,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  police  to  prevent  the  droves  being 
driven  farther,  and  the  animals  quarantined. 

"  It  is  the  duty  of  the  authorities  to  see  that  the  infected  stables 
or  fields  are  properly  cleansed  and  disinfected  when  the  disease  has 
been  declared  at  an  end. 

"  The  disease  may  be  declared  at  an  end  when  no  new  case 
transpired  within  fourteen  days  from  the  healing,  or  removal  of  the 
last  case  in  the  infected  localities,  and  when  the  cleansing,  etc.,  has 


ANTHRAX,   ETC.  355 

been  carried  out  accordin*::^  to  law.     The  termination  of  the  disease 
is  to  be  made  known  to  the  public  in  the  appropriate  organs." 

Contagious  Pleuro-jmeumoma  of  Cattle. 

''  Tlie  investigations  of  the  official  veterinarian  with  reference  to 
an  outbreak  of  this  disease  must  take  place  (as  a  rule)  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  head  man  of  the  locality,  or  of  an  officer  detailed  by"  the 
local  ]>olice  for  that  purpose. 

''If  the  existence  of  the  disease  is  proven,  or  if  strong  suspi- 
cions of  the  same  exist,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  veterinarian  to  as- 
certain how  long  the  suspicious  phenomena  have  been  noticed,  if 
the  diseased  or  suspected  animal  has  been  in  relation  with  other 
cattle,  if  animals  have  been  recently  slaughtered  from  the  same  sta- 
l>le  or  farm,  or  removed,  when  and  where  the  suspected  animal  was 
bought,  and  who  the  former  owner  was.  The  results  of  this  ex- 
amination are  to  be  at  once  communicated  to  the  police  and  the  local 
officers,  in  order  that  they  may  put  the  necessary  laws  in  execution. 
If  the  corresponding  police  regulations  have  not  been  ordered,  and 
the  police  representative  was  not  present  at  the  examination,  it  is 
the  duty  of  the  official  veterinarian  to  at  once  order  a  preliminary 
separation  and  isolation  of  the  diseased  and  suspected  animals.  It  is 
also  the  duty  of  the  veterinarian  to  notify  the  owner  or  his  represent- 
ative in  writing  of  these  regulations.  In  necessary  cases  the  official 
veterinarian  can  require  the  presence  of  the  head  man  of  the  town." 

The  Regulations  in  Case  of  Suspicion. — "The  cattle  of  a  farm 
(or  locality)  which  has  been  heretofore  free  from  the  disease  are  sub- 
ject to  the  police  observation  when  it  has  been  confirmed ;  that, 
among  the  cattle,  individuals  are  found  which  have  been  in  re- 
lations with  animals  having  this  disease  within  the  last  eight  weeks  ; 
when  the  cattle  in  which  the  disease  was  suspected,  before  the 
official  examination,  have  been  slaughtered,  removed,  or  otlierwise 
done  away  with.  The  police  have  to  make  a  memorandum  of 
the  number  and  characteristics  (marks)  of  the  animals  in  the  sus- 
pected locality,  and  to  make  such  regulations  that  the  owner  or 
his  representative  can  not  remove  any  cattle  without  the  permission 
of  the  police.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  police  to  see  that  these  regu- 
lations are  executed. 

"  After  the  lapse  of  four  weeks,  the  police  must  order  the  otli- 
cial  veterinarian  to  make  a  second  supervision  of  the  cattle  in  the 
suspected  locality. 

"  If  the  official  veterinarian  can  not  at  the  time  positively  assert 
that  the  disease  exists  among  the  animals,  but  if  the  examination 


356  PRUSSIAN   REGULATIONS  FOR  CONTAGIOUS   DISEASES. 

has  confirmed  the  existence  of  suspicions  phenomena  which  jnstify 
the  fear  that  an  outbreak  of  the  disease  may  take  place,  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  police  to  subject  the  stable  to  quarantine.  The  other 
cattle  of  the  place  must  be  confined  to  the  limits  of  the  owner's 
property.  No  cattle  can  be  removed  from  the  place,  nor  can  food 
materials  be  removed  which  may  endanger  the  extension  of  the  dis- 
ease. The  police  may  allow  those  animals  which  have  not  been 
quarantined  in  the  stable  to  be  used  for  work  in  the  fields  of  the 
owner,  or  to  graze  when  the  fields  or  the  ways  to  them  are  so  situ- 
ated that  the  cattle  of  other  owners  can  not  possibly  be  exposed  to  in- 
fection. These  regulations  come  to  an  end  when  the  official  veteri- 
narian declares  that  suspicious  phenomena  no  longer  exist," 

In  case  the  disease  comes  to  an  outbreak :  "  When  the  disease 
has  been  confirmed,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  police  to  give  public  no- 
tice of  the  same  in  an  appropriate  manner.  The  infected  locali- 
ties are  to  be  made  known  by  inscriptions,  '  Pleuro-pneumonia,' 
being  placed  at  prominent  places. 

"  All  the  diseased  or  suspected  animals  must  be  discovered  as 
soon  as  possible.  All  cattle  in  the  infected  locality  (farm  or  stable) 
are  to  be  looked  upon  as  suspicious,  inclusive  of  those  which  are 
found  in  isolated  stables.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  police  to  kill  at  once 
all  animals  which  the  official  veterinarian  shall  pronounce  diseased. 
If  a  perfectly  secure  isolation  is  possible,  the  police  may  restrain 
the  above  proceedings  for  a  period  of  fourteen  days,  if  the  owner 
urgently  requests  it.  The  suspected  animals  at  the  infected  farms 
must  be  subjected  to  quarantine.  The  removal  of  cattle  or  food 
from  such  farms  must  be  forbidden  so  far  as  there  is  danger  of  the 
extension  of  the  disease,  though  they  may  be  used  for  work  if  such 
can  be  done  under  proper  restrictions.  If  the  disease  acquires  a 
considerable  extension  in  a  district,  no  cattle  are  to  be  allowed  to  be 
driven  from  it,  or  introduced  into  it.  In  such  case  the  holding  of 
cattle-markets  must  be  forbidden,  and,  in  necessary  cases,  in  neigh- 
boring places  also. 

"  If  the  disease  breaks  out  among  cattle  which  are  constantly 
kept  upon  pastures,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  police  to  order  the  diseased 
animals  killed ;  such  places  must  be  so  guarded  that  no  cattle  can 
be  driven  on  or  from  them.  Such  pastures  must  be  indicated  by 
appropriate  signs.  If  it  is  impossible  to  isolate  such  pastures,  then 
the  remaining  cattle  must  be  removed  to  more  suitable  quarters.  If 
the  disease  is  found  among  droves,  or  in  cattle  on  the  cars  or  in 
canal-boats  or  other  means  of  transport,  then  the  police  have  to 
order  the  diseased  ones  killed,  and  the  remainder  isolated. 


AX  Til  RAX,   ETC.  357 

"  In  onler  that  the  slaughtering  of  suspected  or  quarantined 
cattle  may  immediately  take  place,  the  police  are  permitted  to  allow 
their  removal  by  rail  or  other  closed  conveyance,  to  such  slaughter- 
ing-places as  are  under  the  control  of  the  state.  This  can  only  take 
place  where  no  possibility  exists  of  their  coming  in  contact  with 
other  cattle.  In  such  cases  the  police  must  give  timely  notice  of 
the  arrival  of  the  suspected  cattle.  The  cattle  must  be  slaughtered 
subject  to  the  supervision  of  an  official  veterinarian.  This  liberty 
is  not  extended  to  already  diseased  animals. 

"  If  suspected  animals  are  removed  in  opposition  to  the  above 
regulations,  or  found  in  places  where  they  have  been  forbidden,  it 
is  the  duty  of  the  police  to  kill  them  at  once.  Animals  which  are 
condenmed  to  be  killed  by  the  authorities  must  be  slaughtered 
under  their  inspection  within  the  limits  of  the  place  (farm,  etc.) 
where  they  are  found.  The  lungs  of  the  slaughtered,  and  bodies  of 
those  animals  which  have  died,  must  be  destroyed.  They  may  be 
skinned  upon  the  named  grounds.  The  flesh  of  the  slaughtered 
cattle  can  be  removed  after  it  has  been  cooled  oflf.  The  hides  can 
only  be  removed  from  such  places  after  they  have  become  com- 
pletely dried,  unless  they  are  directly  delivered  at  a  tannery. 

"  The  cleansing  and  disinfection  of  the  infected  stables  must  be 
controlled  by  the  police,  and  must  take  place  before  the  restrictive 
regulations  are  relaxed.  The  police  and  veterinary  official  must  re- 
turn reports  with  reference  to  the  execution  of  the  laws. 

'"  The  disease  is  to  be  declared  at  an  end  when  all  the  cattle  have 
died  or  been  condemned  to  slaughter ;  when  all  the  sick  cattle  have 
been  removed,  and  no  new  case  has  occurred  within  four  months 
from  the  last  case  of  disease  ;  when  no  case  of  disease  has  sliown 
itself  among  the  cattle  of  the  infected  locality  for  a  period  of  three 
months  after  the  last  possible  infection  could  have  taken  place.  No 
cattle  can  be  removed  from  such  places,  save  for  the  purpose  of  im- 
mediate slaughter,  until  after  the  lapse  of  six  months. 

"•  The  police  are  to  notify  the  public  that  the  invasion  is  ended, 
after  the  disinfection  has  been  properly  effected.'' 

Glanders. 

"  The  examination  of  animals  (liorse,  mule,  ass)  by  the  official 
veterinarian  must  take  place,  as  a  rule,  in  the  presence  of  the  head 
man  of  the  place,  or  a  special  representative  of  the  police.  If  the 
presence  of  the  disease  is  confinned,  or  if  there  is  a  strong  sus- 
picion of  the  same,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  veterinarian  to  ascertain 
how  long  the  suspicious  phenomena  have  been  noticed,  if  horses  have 


358  PRUSSIAN  REGULATIOXS  FOR  CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES. 

been  lately  sold  from  tlie  place,  or  removed ;  if  tlie  diseased  or  sus- 
pected animals  have  been  in  relation  with  other  horses  ;  if  so,  where 
the  same  were  bought,  and  from  whom.  The  results  of  this  exami- 
nation are  to  be  at  once  communicated  in  writing  to  the  local  police 
and  the  head  man  of  the  place,  in  order  that  the  requisite  regulations 
maj  be  placed  in  operation. 

"If  the  regulations  are  not  yet  in  active  operation,  and  the  rep- 
resentative of  the  police  was  not  present  at  the  examination,  it  is  the 
peremptory  duty  of  the  official  veterinarian  to  at  once  separate  and 
isolate  the  diseased  or  suspected  horse.  The  veterinarian  must  also 
at  once  notify  the  owner,  or  his  representative,  of  these  restric- 
tions. A  memorandum  must  at  once  be  taken  of  the  character- 
istics and  appearance  of  the  diseased  and  susj)ected  animals,  and  of 
those  horses  which,  although  not  yet  diseased,  have  been  in  rela- 
tion with  them  and  others  exposed  to  infection.  The  papers  are  to 
be  at  once  sent  to  the  police,  so  that  the  regulations  may  be  ]3ut  in 
force." 

Protective  Begulations. — "  The  public  are  to  be  notified  by  the 
police  in  the  usual  manner.  This  notice  may  be  dispensed  with  in 
places  of  over  50,000  inhabitants  with  the  consent  of  the  Minister  of 
Agriculture." 

When  Glanders  is  proven. — "  If  the  presence  of  the  disease  is 
confirmed  in  a  horse,  it  is  to  be  at  once  killed.  It  must  be  done  in 
some  isolated  place.  In  the  transport  to  such  a  locality  care  must 
be  taken  that  the  diseased  animal  does  not  come  in  contact  with 
others  of  the  same  species." 

Wheyi  the  Suspicion  of  Glanders  exists. — "  In  the  following 
cases  the  suspected  animals  may  be  killed  : 

"  {a.)  When  it  can  be  proved  that  the  suspected  animals  have 
been  in  relation  with  diseased  ones. 

"  (b)  "When  a  suspicious  nasal  outflow,  hard  and  swollen  glands, 
especially  the  intermaxillary  space,  suspicious  nodules  in  the  skin, 
suspicious  tumefaction  of  one  or  more  limbs  exists ;  especially  when 
one  or  more  of  these  phenomena  are  present  at  the  same  time ;  or 
when,  at  the  same  time,  difficulty  of  respiration  or  staring  hair  is 
present  with  some  of  these  phenomena. 

"  (<?.)  When,  after  the  lapse  of  three  months,  the  isolated  horse 
can  not  be  declared  free  from  suspicion  by  the  official  veterinarian. 

"  {d.)  When  suitable  room  can  not  be  afforded  for  the  isolation 
of  the  suspected  horse,  or  when  other  reasons  exist  to  render  inse- 
cure the  danger  of  further  extension  of  the  disease. 

"  When,  in  the  above  cases,  the  owner  desires  the  animal  to  be  at 


ANTHRAX,  ETC.  359 

once  killed,  and  this  regulation  is  in  the  public  interest,  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  police  to  comply  therewith. 

"  If  the  isolated  horses  are  used  contrary  to  the  restrictions,  or 
found  in  places  forbidden  them,  they  are  to  be  at  once  killed. 

"  Horses  in  which  susjjicious  phenomena  have  been  diao;no8ti- 
cated  must  be  subjected  to  stable  (juarantine  until  killed,  or  until  they 
are  declared  free  from  suspicion  by  the  official  veterinarian.  The 
owner  must  supply  the  necessaiy  conveniences  for  such  a  purpose. 
Such  animals  can  not  be  removed  from  the  stable  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  police.  The  grooms  appointed  to  the  care  of  the  isolated 
horses  must  be  made  aware  of  the  danger  of  the  transmission  of  the 
disease  to  mankind.  They  must  be  forbidden  any  interference  with 
other  horses,  and  must  not  be  allowed  to  sleep  in  the  infected  sta- 
ble. The  racks,  utensils,  and  other  objects  in  the  quarantined  stable 
can  not  be  removed  except  with  the  permission  of  the  police.  If 
necessary,  such  objects  should  be  appropriately  branded." 

Horses  In  which  Infection  is  to  he  suspected.  —  "All  horses 
which  have  stood  in  the  same  stable  with  glandered  or  suspected 
animals,  or  which  liave  been  in  relation  with  them,  but  in  which 
at  the  time  no  suspicious  phenomena  are  perceptible,  are  to  be 
isolated  in  special  stables  by  the  police.  These  horses  must  be  sub- 
jected to  inspection  by  the  official  veterinarian  every  fourteen  days. 
This  regulation  is  not  to  be  applied  to  large  towns  or  cities  where 
several  approved  veterinarians  reside,  when  the  owner  brings  the 
horses  in  question  to  the  veterinarian  every  eight  days  for  examina- 
tion ;  the  officer  is  to  report  to  the  police,  in  writing,  the  results  of 
each  examination.  So  soon  as  a  suspicion  of  glanders  is  confirmed, 
the  horse  is  to  be  at  once  confined  and  isolated.  So  long  as  the 
horses  thus  subjected  to  observation  are  considered  healthy,  they 
may  be  allowed  to  be  used  within  the  limits  of  the  place  in  ques- 
tion. Special  permission  from  the  police  is  necessary  when  the 
horse  is  to  be  taken  outside  the  limits  of  the  place ;  this  can  only  bo 
given  when  the  use  required  of  the  horse  is  of  such  a  nature  that  it 
is  not  necessary  to  put  him  up  in  any  other  stable  or  shed.  Such 
police  control  is  to  be  extended  over  at  least  three  months.  During 
this  period,  the  horse  in  question  must  not  be  brought  into  other 
stables,  or  farms,  or  places,  than  those  indicated  by  the  police.  If 
such  permission  is  given,  the  police  control  must  be  extended  to 
such  places.  If  the  police  regulations  are  not  strictly  followed  by 
the  owner,  the  horse  is  to  be  immediately  quarantined  in  its  stable. 
It  is  the  duty  of  the  local  police  to  see  that  the  official  veterinarian 
subjects  tlie  quarantined  horses  to  an  examination  at  least  once  a 


360  PRUSSIAN  REGULATIONS  FOR  CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES. 

month.  If  the  disease  extends,  if  circumstances  exist  which  make 
such  an  extension  probable,  the  police  may  order  a  special  supervis- 
ion, bj  the  official  veterinarian,  of  all  the  horses  owned  in  the  place. 
"  The  cadavers  of  horses  diseased  with  glanders  are  to  be  either 
chemically  destroyed,  or  buried  after  the  skin  has  been  so  cut  as  to 
utterly  destroy  its  value.  The  burial-places  must  be  so  deep  that 
at  least  four  feet  of  earth  covers  the  buried  bodies.  The  selection  of 
the  burial-place  rests  with  the  police.  These  regulations  are  not 
applicable  to  horses  at  veterinary  schools  or  other  government  es- 
tabhshments,  where  they  are  requu"ed  for  educational  or  experi- 
mental pui'poses.  The  disinfection  and  cleansing  of  stables  in  which 
diseased  animals  have  stood  must  take  place  under  police  super- 
vision.    A  record  of  the  same  must  be  kept  in  writing. 

•  "  The  disease  is  declared  at  an  end  when  all  glanders-diseased  or 
suspected  horses  are  dead,  or  when  the  latter  have  been  declared 
free  by  the  veterinarian  of  the  state.  When  no  suspicious  phenom- 
ena have  presented  themselves  during  the  course  of  the  pohce  con- 
trol. When  the  cleansing  and  disinfection  have  been  performed 
and  attested  to. 

"  It  is  the  duty  of  the  police  to  make  this  known  to  the  public 
in  the  usual  manner.  This  publication  is  not  necessary  in  the  large 
cities  and  towns,  where  the  presence  of  the  disease,  or  its  suspicion, 
is  not  made  public." 

Variola  Ovina. 

"  The  outbreak  of  this  disease  in  a  flock  of  sheep  is  to  be  made 
known,  without  delay,  by  the  police,  in  the  usual  manner.  The  in- 
fected place  is  to  be  indicated  by  appropriate  inscriptions  at  promi- 
nent points.  The  police  have  at  the  same  time  to  quarantine  all  the 
sheep  at  the  infected  locality.  So  far  as  circumstances  will  allow, 
the  visibly  diseased  are  to  be  isolated  from  the  apparently  healthy 
sheep.  The  owner  of  the  sheep  has  to  supply  the  proper  conven- 
iences for  this  purpose,  and  assist  in  carrying  out  the  regulations. 
The  passage  of  such  quarantined  sheep  to  the  pastures  is  only  to  be 
permitted  when  the  situation  and  nature  of  the  pastures  are  such  as 
to  forbid  the  extension  of  the  disease,  or  such  that  police  regula- 
tions can  attain  this  end." 

The  owner  of  the  sheep  has  also  to  comply  with  the  following 
regulations : 

'•'  The  removal  of  the  manure  from  infected  stables  in  such  ways 
or  to  such  places  that  it  would  endanger  the  infection  of  sheep 
from  other  places  is  to  be  forbidden,  unless  this  danger  can  be 
obviated  by  other  police  regulations.     Hay  and  straw  from  the  in- 


ANTHRAX,   ETC.  361 

fected  stables  can  not  be  removed.  Shepherds  and  other  persons 
who  have  been  in  relation  with  the  diseased  sheep  can  not  be  em- 
ployed in  the  care  of  those  of  other  owners,  or  other  sheep  which 
are  not  diseased.  They  can  only  leave  the  place  after  careful  wash- 
inof  and  change  of  clothing.  Strangers  and  butchers  must  not  be 
admitted  to  the  infected  stables.  Common  washing-places  can  not 
be  used  for  the  diseased  sheej).  Diseased  sheep  can  only  be  washed 
by  pei'sons  who  are  to  be  forbidden  coming  in  relation  with  other 
sheep  within  the  succeeding  ten  days.  The  wool  from  such  sheep 
can  onlv  be  removed  from  the  place  when  closely  packed,  and  then 
only  with  the  permission  of  the  police. 

"  Sheep  are  to  be  placed  under  police  observation  in  those  cases 
where  an  outbreak  of  the  disease  can  not  be  securely  determined, 
but  when  the  official  veterinarian  declares  the  case  to  be  decidedly 
suspicious.  This  observation  is  to  be  given  up  when,  after  the  lapse 
of  fourteen  days,  the  official  veterinarian  declares  that  no  suspicious 
phenomena  have  been  seen  in  the  sheep. 

"When  the  situation  of  the  individual  outbreak  is  such  that  a 
complete  isolation  of  the  diseased  sheep  is  pronounced  impossible 
for  any  length  of  time,  or  when  the  general  interest  demands  the 
speediest  possible  termination  of  the  outbreak,  it  becomes  the  duty 
of  the  police  to  occasion  the  speediest  possible  inoculation  of  all  the 
sheep  in  the  district.  The  police  must  strictly  attend  to  the  neces- 
sary restrictions.  Such  inoculations  can  only  take  place  under  the 
supervision  of  an  official  veterinarian. 

"  When  the  disease  breaks  out  in  flocks  in  transit,  they  arc 
to  be  at  once  subjected  to  quarantine.  No  inoculation  of  sheep 
by  owners  can  take  place  without  the  consent  of  the  police.  The 
notification  of  such  intention  must  be  handed  in  at  least  eight 
days  before  the  inoculation  is  to  take  place.  The  district  police 
nmst  at  once  notify  the  public  that  such  inoculation  is  to  take  place, 
and,  so  far  as  the  district  is  not  under  their  control,  they  must  notify 
the  neighboring  police  of  the  fact.  The  above-given  regulations  are 
then  to  ])e  applied  to  the  inoculated  sheep  in  the  same  manner  as  if 
the  disease  had  broken  out  in  a  natural  way. 

"The  slaughtering  of  such  diseased  sheep  for  human  consump- 
tion is  forbidden. 

"The  cadavers  of  sheep  which  have  died,  or  been  killed,  on  ac- 
count of  variola,  must  be  chemically  destroyed,  or,  where  this  is 
impossible,  buried.  The  burial-places  must  be  so  deep  that  at  least 
four  feet  of  earth  lies  upon  the  bodies.  Such  sheep  may  be 
skinned,  but  the  skins  can  not  be  removed  except  with  the  permis- 


362  PRUSSIAN  REGULATIONS  FOR  CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES. 

sion  of  the  police,  and  then  only  when  perfectly  dry,  or  for  direct 
delivery  to  a  tannery. 

"  The  infected  stables  or  pens  must  be  cleansed  and  disinfected 
according  to  law. 

"  The  disease  may  be  declared  as  ended  when  the  official  veteri- 
narian has  declared  all  the  sheep  at  the  infected  place  free  from  the 
disease. 

"The  regulations  are,  however,  to  be  held  in  force  for  two 
months  after  the  disease  has  been  declared  as  ended.  Sheep  in  full 
wool  can  only  be  removed  from  such  places  after  four  months  from 
the  time  the  disease  was  declared  at  an  end.  At  the  cessation  of 
all  restrictions,  the  same  must  be  made  known  by  the  police  in  the 
usual  way." 

Rabies  of  the  Domestic  Animals. 

Dogs. — "Dogs  in  which  signs  of  rabies  appear,  or  which  indicate 
suspicious  phenomena,  must  either  be  at  once  killed  by  the  owner 
or  those  having  them  in  charge,  or  be  placed  in  secure  confinement 
until  tlie  police  have  determined  what  is  to  be  done  with  them. 

"  When  a  human  being  or  an  animal  is  bitten  by  a  dog  which  is 
suspected  as  being  rabid,  or  been  in  any  relation  with  such,  which 
renders  infection  probable,  the  suspected  dog  is  not  to  he  killed,  hut 
he  safely  secured,  when  such  can  he  done  without  further  danger, 
until  the  police  decide  upon  the  course  to  take. 

"  The  transport  of  a  dog  in  which  rabies  is  suspected,  with  the 
purpose  of  confinement,  must  take  place  in  a  closed  vehicle,  or  the 
dog  must  be  securely  muzzled  and  well  chained  with  two  chains  be- 
tween two  conductors. 

"  It  is  the  duty  of  the  local  police  to  immediately  cause  the  ex- 
amination of  a  dog  suspected  of  rabies  by  an  official  veterinarian, 
or,  when  time  would  be  lost  in  waiting  for  the  attendance  of  the 
latter,  by  an  approved  veterinarian. 

"  If  there  is  a  well-founded  suspicion  that  the  suspected  dog  had 
been  in  relation  with  a  rabid  or  suspected  dog,  the  dog  must  be  se- 
curely confined  and  watched  for  a  period  of  six  days,  if  the  exami- 
nation of  the  veterinarian  does  not  at  once  confirm  the  suspicion. 
If  the  dog  lives  over  this  time,  and  no  suspicious  phenomena  ap- 
j)ear,  he  is  to  be  discharged. 

"  If  a  dog  suspected  of  rabies  is  at  once  killed,  or  if  it  dies  during 
confinement,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  police  to  order  a  jpost-mortem  ex- 
amination by  an  official  veterinarian,  if  there  has  been  any  proba- 
bility of  men  or  animals  having  been  bitten  by  the  same,  or  if  the 
said  dog  has  been  roaming  over  the  country. 


AXTDRAX,   ETC.  863 

"  If  the  presence  of  the  disease  is  confirmed,  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
police  to  make  it  known  to  the  public  in  the  usual  way.  Dogs  in 
whifh  the  disease  has  been  diagnosed,  must  be  at  once  killed.  It 
is  further  the  duty  of  the  police  to  at  once  kill  all  dogs  which  have 
been  bitten  by  the  rabid  dog,  as  well  as  such  as  have  been  in  rela- 
tion with  it  so  as  to  render  tlie  possibility  of  infection  iinmincnt. 

''  When  a  rabid  or  suspected  dug  is  known  to  be  freely  running 
over  a  section  of  the  country,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  police  to  order  all 
other  dugs  in  the  district  securely  confined.  All  places  in  which 
the  rabid  or  suspected  dog  has  been  seen  are  to  be  looked  upon  as 
dangerous,  as  well  as  a  territory  extending  four  kilometres  be- 
yond them.  If  the  suspicion  is  unfounded,  the  confined  dogs  are 
again  to  be  freed  from  the  restriction ;  if,  on  the  contrary,  the 
suspicion  becomes  confirmed,  the  restrictions  are  to  be  extended 
over  a  period  of  at  least  three  months.  If  dogs  are  found  free  in 
opposition  to  these  restrictions,  they  may  be  at  once  killed  by  the 
police.  In  such  places  where  dogs  are  obliged  to  wear  muzzles, 
these  restrictions  need  not  be  called  into  force.  These  restrictions 
are  further  not  to  be  extended  to  dogs  which  are  used  for  draught, 
when  they  are  firmly  harnessed  to  wagons,  and  are  securely  muzzled ; 
shepherds  may  also  be  allowed  to  use  their  dogs.  So  long  as  the 
disease  has  acquired  no  considerable  extension,  dogs  may  be  used 
for  the  purpose  of  hunting,  on  the  condition  that  they  be  securely 
muzzled  and  led  by  chains  or  strong  cords,  at  all  times  and  places 
except  those  where  they  are  hunted." 

Cats. — These  are  to  be  killed. 

Other  Domestic  AnimaU. — "Other  animals  which  have  been 
bitten  or  in  such  relation  with  a  rabid  or  suspected  dog  as  to  render 
infection  probable,  must  be  placed  under  technical  observation  for 
the  time  fixed  by  law,  unless  the  owner  prefers  to  kill  them.  The 
duration  of  this  observation  is,  for  horses,  three  months ;  cattle, 
four  months ;  slieep,  goats,  and  swine,  two  months.  So  long  as  the 
animals  are  pronounced  healthy  by  the  official  veterinarian,  they 
may  be  used  for  work.  But  if  they  display  phenomena  which  serve 
to  confirm  the  suspicion  of  nibies,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  owner  to 
notify  the  police  thereof.  The  latter  have  to  order  the  examination 
of  the  animal  in  question  by  an  official  veterinarian  ;  if  he  confirms 
the  suspicion,  the  animal  is  to  be  confined  to  its  stable.  If  the  dis- 
ease becomes  confirmed,  the  animal  is  to  be  killed  by  order  of  the 
police.  No  attempt  at  treatment  can  be  undertiikcn  under  penalty 
of  the  law." 

Regxdationfi  icith  reference  to  all  Animals. — "Xo  rabid  animals 


364:  PRUSSIAN  REGULATIONS  FOR  CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES. 

are  to  be  slaughtered,  skinned,  or  used  in  any  manner,  nor  is  the 
milk  or  other  parts  of  them  to  be  sold.  The  cadavers  of  animals 
which  have  died  or  been  killed  on  account  of  rabies  are  to  be  either 
chemically  destroyed,  or,  after  the  skin  has  been  destroyed,  buried. 
Autopsies  upon  such  cadavers  can  only  be  made  by  approved  veteri- 
narians. It  is  the  duty  of  the  police  to  select  the  spot  where  such 
dogs  shall  be  buried,  or  otherwise  destroyed.  The  straw  of  the 
kennels,  wooden  utensils  used  about  them,  and  wooden  dog-kennels 
must  be  burned.  Stall-utensils  of  other  animals  which  have  been 
rabid,  and  killed,  must  be  cleaned  with  hot  lye-water.  Iron  utensils 
must  be  highly  heated.  The  stables  must  be  cleansed,  the  walls  and 
floors  cleansed  with  hot  lye-water  and  chloride  of  Hme." 

Dismfectants. 

' '  Potash  and  Soda. — Potash-lye  is  to  be  prepared  by  cooking 
one  part  crude  potash  with  ten  of  water,  and  by  adding  gradually 
one  part  of  slaked  lime.  Instead  of  potash,  four  times  the  quantity 
of  wood-ashes  may  be  used.  Soda-lye  is  to  be  prepared  in  the  same 
manner.  These  preparations  are  more  suitable  for  cleansing  wood- 
work. 

"  Freshly-slaTced  lime  is  to  be  used  in  a  dry  form  for  covering 
cadavers,  or  as  lime-water  for  washing  over  walls,  mixing  with  ma- 
nure or  other  refuse.  Hides  may  be  disinfected  by  placing  them  in 
a  strained  solution  of  one  part  lime  to  sixty  or  eighty  water. 

"  Common  Salt  and  Saltpeter. — Hides,  flesh,  intestines,  bones, 
horns,  claws,  etc.,  may  be  treated  with  these  salts,  by  laying  them 
in  layers  or  piles  thoroughly  mixed  with  them,  or  by  placing  them 
in  a  strong  solution  of  the  same. 

"  Chlorine  may  be  used  in  different  ways : 

"  As  gas,  in  the  disinfection  of  stables.  Gas  is  easily  and  quickly 
prepared  by  pouring  double  the  weight  of  muriatic  acid  upon  chlo- 
ride of  lime,  or  equal  parts  of  sulphuric  acid  upon  the  same.  Or  it 
can  be  prepared  by  pouring  strong  (commercial)  muriatic  acid  upon 
a  quantity  of  small  pieces  of  peroxide  of  manganese,  or  by  pouring 
strong  sulphuric  acid  upon  a  powdered  mixture  of  three  parts  com- 
mon salt  and  two  of  peroxide  of  manganese.  A  solution  of  chlo- 
ride of  lime  can  be  made  by  mixing  one  part  of  the  same  with  ten 
of  water. 

"  Hypermanganate  of  potash  and  soda  are  mixed  with  water, 
and  four  to  five  per  cent  solutions  used  for  washing  the  hands,  in- 
struments, etc. 

"  Carbolic  acid  is  not  to  be  used  where  animals  destined  for 


ANTHRAX,   ETC.  365 

slaughter  or  milk  purposes  are  being  kept,  on  account  of  its  pene- 
trating odor.  It  is  only  soluble  in  water  to  two  per  cent,  but  a  com- 
plete solution  is  unnecessary  for  disinfection  purposes.  In  the  dis- 
infection of  wooden  or  iron  objects,  a  mixture  of  the  crude  acid 
with  four  to  six  parts  water  or  oil  is  suthcient.  Coal-tar  or  wood- 
tar  also  act  as  fair  disinfectants  at  times. 

'"  Heat. — Dnj  heat  in  closed  7'oams,  when  the  temperature  has 
been  raised  to  70°  C,  makes  a  very  good  disinfectant  for  clothing, 
wool,  liair,  bones,  etc. 

"  Hot  ivater  and  steam  are  valuable  in  destroying  the  germs  of 
infection. 

'■''Fire  is  to  be  used  to  destroy  contaminated  wood-work,  and 
cleansing  various  iron  utensils. 

"  A  free  exposure  for  a  long  time  to  the  circulating  atmosphere 
is  often  valuable  in  so  widely  dispersing  the  infectious  elements  as 
to  nullify  their  action." 

Disinfection  with  Reference  to  the  Different  Contagious  or  Infec- 
tious Animal  Diseases. 

Anthrax. — "  The  infectious  elements  of  this  disease  possess  a 
great  degree  of  tenacity.  They  are  not  securely  destroyed  by  des- 
iccation, or  by  the  dry  dissolution  of  the  cadaver  in  the  earth. 
Chemicals  used  in  disinfection  must  be  of  the  strongest  concentra- 
tion. Great  heat,  chloride  of  lime,  and  freshly-slaked  lime  (thick) 
are  amonoj  the  best.  The  beddin^r  and  manure  of  diseased  animals 
must  be  burned.  Blood  or  other  fluid  elements  from  the  diseased 
animals  must  be  treated  with  chloride  of  lime  or  freshly-burned 
lime  ;  four  or  five  per  cent  carbolic  acid  solutions  are  suitable  for 
the  disinfection  of  the  hands,  instruments,  etc. 

Foot- and- Mouth  Disease. — "  The  infectious  elements  are  quite 
movable  and  easily  destroyed  ;  therefore,  the  disinfection  of  infected 
stables  may  be  limited  to  a  thorough  cleaning. 

Contafjions  Pleuro-jmeinnonia. — "  The  infectious  elements  are 
movable,  and  come  from  the  diseased  lungs  with  the  expired  air, 
filling  the  atmosphere  around  the  diseased  animals,  and  being  again 
taken  up  by  the  others  in  the  stable.  AVhere  the  nature  of  the 
conditions  will  allow  it,  the  stables  are  to  be  treated  with  weak 
chlorine-gas  ;  this  is  not  necessary  with  animals  at  the  public 
slaughter-houses.  In  staliles  where  the  hay  and  straw  are  situ- 
ated over  diseased  cattle,  the  superficial  parts  must  be  careful- 
ly removed,  and  not  used  for  feeding  cattle  after  the  diseased 
ones  have  been  removed.     Stables  in  which  only  animals  that  have 


366  PRUSSIAN  REGULATIONS  FOR  CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES. 

gone  through  with  the  disease  are  confined,  do  not  require  disin- 
fection." 

Glanders. — "  The  infectious  elements  retain  their  vitality  a  long 
time,  and  are  very  tenacious.  Stables  or  rooms  in  which  glandered 
horses  have  stood,  the  racks  and  other  paraphernalia  which  are  used 
about  tbe  diseased  horses,  must  be  carefully  cleansed  and  disinfected. 
Clothes  and  brushes,  etc.,  used  about  the  diseased  horses  must  be 
burned  ;  chains  heated  hot ;  but  harnesses,  etc.,  may  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  and  disinfected." 

Variola  Ovina. — "  The  infectious  elements  soon  lose  their  vi- 
tality on  exposure  to  the  moving  atmosphere ;  hence  are  easily  dis- 
turbed. The  manure  and  the  walls  of  the  pens,  however,  retain 
it  a  long  time,  and  are  to  be  treated  accordingly." 

Rabies. — "  The  straw,  wood-work,  utensils,  muzzles,  collars,  etc., 
must  be  burned.  The  other  disinfection  is  according  to  the  usual 
course." 


PART    III. 
THE  MEAXS  OF  PREYEXTIOX. 


A  NATIONAL  VETERINARY  POLICE  SYSTEM. 

AsroE  from  those  animal  diseases  which  are  transmissible  to 
man,  there  are  contagious  animal  diseases  which  are  limited  to  spe- 
cial species.  We  have  now  well  domesticated  with  us  one  of  the 
very  worst  of  these  evils — contagious  pleuro-pneumonia  of  cattle. 
It  is  not  my  purpose  to  enter  into  any  historical  notice  of  this  dis- 
ease, either  in  Europe  or  this  country.  Its  first  most  extensive  rav- 
ages were  felt  here,  in  Massachusetts,  between  1860  and  1SG8,  the 
disease  being  finally  crushed  out  at  a  cost  of  some  sixty  thousand  dol- 
lars. In  September,  1879,  I  received  a  letter  from  one  of  the  com- 
missioners of  the  State  of  New  York  for  the  suppression  of  this  dis- 
ease, in  which  he  says  that  over  five  hundred  diseased  cattle  had 
already  been  killed  by  the  autliorities,  and  some  seven  hundred 
more,  which  were  either  suspected  or  had  surely  been  exposed  to 
infection,  causing  an  actual  loss,  exclusive  of  the  ofiicial  expenses, 
of  not  less  than  fifty  or  sixty  thousand  dollars. 

Tliis  disease  has  now  spread  over  many  of  our  seaboard  States, 
being  domesticated  surely  as  far  north  as  Connecticut,  and  as  far 
south  as  Northern  Virginia.  It  has  not  as  yet  been  sufficiently 
proved  that  it  has  crossed  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  but,  unless 
our  people  wake  up  to  the  urgencies  of  the  case,  it  will  surely  ex- 
tend to  the  herds  of  the  AVest,  and  then  we  can  give  up  all  ho[)c  of 
ever  becoming  free  from  it.  A  peculiarity  of  this  disease,  which  it 
enjoys  in  common  with  glanders,  is  the  insidiousness  of  its  course 
during  its  early  stages.  An  animal  may  be  diseased  for  weeks,  or 
even  months,  without  showing  any  striking  indications  that  a  dis- 
ease having  such  a  truly  devastating  character  is  progressing  within 
it.  During  all  this  time  it  is  capable  of  infecting  others.  The  fol- 
lowing report,  taken  from  the  "  Turf,  Field,  and  Farm,"  January 


368  THE  MEANS  OF  PREVENTION. 

16, 18S0,  will  give  an  idea  of  what  the  authorities  in  New  Jersey  are 
endeavoring  to  do,  and  have  done. 

Eepokt  by  the  Sukgeon-in-Chief  to  Genekal  Steeling,  the  Gov- 
ernor's Agent  for  the  Prevention  of  the  Spread  of  Pleuro- 
pneumonia IN  the  State  of  ]N^ew  Jersey. 

249  Washington  Street,  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  ) 
December  15,  1S79.  \ 

Sir  :  In  compliance  with  your  instructions,  I  have  the  honor  to 
submit  my  report  of  the  details  and  operations  under  my  charge  as 
Yeterinary  Surgeon-in-Chief  of  the  Bureau. 

I  found  it  necessary  to  organize  a  staff  of  six  qualified  veterina- 
rians to  assist  in  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  the  law  entitled 
"An  Act  to  prevent  the  spread  of  Epizootic,  Contagious  Pleuro- 
pneumonia among  Cattle  in  New  Jersey."  (See  Chapter  89  of  the 
Laws  of  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  approved  March  13,  1879.) 
Much  work  having  been  done  in  Bergen  County,  and  no  disease 
having  been  found,  and  reports  having  come  to  the  office  that  the 
disease  was  present  in  Hudson  County,  the  inspectors  were  assigned 
to  work  there. 

Every  herd  has  been  carefully  examined,  and  when  the  disease 
has  been  found,  the  animals  have  either  been  destroyed  or  the  sta- 
bles quarantined  and  the  stock  carefully  watched.  The  dairymen 
had  been  in  the  habit  of  pasturing  their  stock  indiscriminately  on 
the  public  commons,  this  being  a  source  of  spreading  the  disease. 

It  became  necessary  to  take  some  steps  to  control  it.  With  that 
object  in  view,  the  Police  Commissioners  of  Jersey  City  were  con- 
sulted, and  they  caused  an  order  to  be  issued  prohibiting  the  driv- 
ing of  all  cattle  through  the  streets,  unless  accompanied  by  a  permit 
issued  from  this  office.  On  July  7th  it  became  necessary  to  quar- 
antine Essex  County  to  facilitate  inspections,  which,  when  com- 
pleted, showed,  as  a  result,  that  the  stock  was,  with  a  few  excep- 
tions, healthy.  The  other  counties  have  only  been  inspected  in 
localities  where  the  disease  was  reported  to  exist,  and  the  herds  in 
the  immediate  neighborhood  have  been  examined  to  ascertain  the 
extent  of  the  spread  of  the  malady.  Having  been  made  aware  of 
the  existence  of  the  disease  in  Pennsylvania,  and  arrangements  hav- 
ing been  perfected,  four  veterinarians  were  dispatched  to  the  west- 
ern frontier  of  the  State,  one  to  be  stationed  at  Bull's  Island  and 
one  at  Trenton,  these  to  examine  all  cattle  arriving  between  Cam- 
den and  Phillipsburg,  and  two  at  Camden,  to  examine  all  stock  ar- 
riving between  that  point  and  Salem,  with  instructions  to  return  all 


A   NATIONAL   VETErJNARY   POLICE   SYSTEM.  369 

stock  found  infected  witli  contagious  pleuro-pncunionia.  On  Au- 
gust IS,  1879,  regular  examinations  were  commenced  on  that  bor- 
der, and  the  results  obtained  have  shown  the  necessity  of  the  meas- 
ures taken. 

Four  months'  inspections  have  discovered  sixteen  lots  of  diseased 
cattle  containing  217  head,  forty  of  which  were  found  infected  with 
contagious  pleuro-pneumonia,  and,  with  the  rest,  sent  back  to  Phila- 
delphia. 

These  are  only  the  positive  results  obtained ;  the  farmers  have 
been  greatly  benetited  by  receiving  a  nnich  better  grade  of  cattle 
than  heretofore,  as  the  dealers  buy  only  healthy  stock,  knowing  by 
experience  that  it  would  be  useless  to  attempt  to  pass  any  other  kind. 

IIoio  the  Work  is  heing  done. — Finding  a  strong  feeling  of  an- 
tipathy existing  among  the  people  against  the  introduction  of  radical 
measures,  and  with  a  view  of  obviating  that  feeling,  the  inspectors 
were  instructed  to  exercise  discretion  and  extend  courtesy  toward 
those  with  whom  they  came  in  contact  while  in  the  discharge  of 
their  duties,  and  to  report  all  interference  on  the  part  of  the  people 
to  this  office,  where  the  case  would  receive  due  consideration. 

This  course,  I  am  happy  to  say,  has  been  productive  of  excellent 
results,  as  far  as  removing  all  feeling  of  opposition  and  inducing 
cattle-owners  to  look  upon  the  inspectors  as  a  source  of  protection. 

The  Method  of  makbig  Inspections. — In  order  to  facilitate  the 
work,  a  detective,  who  is  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  city,  pre- 
cedes the  inspectors,  locating  the  stables,  number  of  cattle,  etc., 
which  he  reports  to  this  office.  The  inspectors  are  then  provided 
with  lists  of  the  same,  with  jirinted  forms  of  quarantine  notices,  and 
instructed  to  proceed  to  the  places,  make  a  careful  examination,  and 
if  any  diseased  animals  are  found,  to  mark  them  by  clipping  the 
hair  from  the  right  gluteal  region,  forming  the  letters  P.  P.,  with 
a  cross-cut  through  the  skin  between  with  a  sharp  scalj)el,  while 
those  standing  contiguous  to,  or  having  been  in  contact  with  them, 
being  thereby  rendered  liable  to  develop  the  malady,  are  simply 
marked  with  the  Jettere  and  isolated  to  await  further  developments. 

The  stable  is  then  quarantined  by  placing  a  printed  notice  on 
the  building,  and  at  the  close  of  the  day's  labor  the  inspectors  return 
to  the  office  where,  upon  printed  forms,  a  report  of  the  number,  lo- 
cation, and  condition  of  each  herd  is  made,  which  is  placed  upon  tile 
for  further  reference.  As  soon  as  compatible  we  then  proceed  to  the 
infected  herd,  make  a  careful  rcinspection,  and  determine  what 
should  be  done  under  the  circumstances.  The  owner  being  first  con- 
sulted by  stating  to  him  the  case  with  its  probable  results,  and  if  it  is 

24 


370  THE  MEANS  OF  PREVENTION. 

necessary  to  kill  in  order  to  prevent  the  spread  of  tlie  malady,  he  is 
so  informed,  and  the  animals  are  taken  out,  destroyed,  their  hides 
slashed,  and  the  carcasses,  if  in  the  city  limits,  carted  away  by  the 
offal  contractor ;  if  not,  they  are  buried. 

The  remaining  animals,  though  showing  no  diseased  condition, 
are  looked  upon  with  suspicion  from  having  been  in  contact  with 
the  infection,  and  when  in  proper  condition  are  sent  to  the  butcher, 
where  they  are  slaughtered  under  the  supervision  of  an  inspector. 
In  some  cases  where  the  animals  are  in  a  safe  locality,  so  that 
there  is  no  danger  of  the  disease  spreading,  though  having  passed 
through  a  slight  attack  of  the  malady,  but  evidently  making  a  rapid 
recovery,  it  is  considered  prudent  to  keep  them  in  quarantine  until 
they  can  be  fitted  for  the  butcher,  and  the  flesh  utilized  for  human 
consumption. 

After  the  manure,  litter,  and  all  material  having  a  tendency  to 
retain  infection  has  been  removed  from  the  stable,  it  is  then  thor- 
oughly disinfected,  and  ninety  days  afterward,  if  the  owner  is  de- 
sirous, the  quarantine  is  removed,  and  new  cattle  allowed  on  the 
premises. 

Dealers. — One  of  the  worst  difficulties  we  have  been  called  upon 
to  overcome  is  the  dealer,  a  sharp,  shrewd,  unscrupulous,  unprin- 
cipled person,  who  studies  to  take  advantage  of  the  unsophisticated 
dairyman,  and  even  the  Bureau,  whenever  the  opportunity  presents. 
His  favorite  method  is  to  go  to  a  stable  where  diseased  animals  are 
known  to  be  kept,  procure  one  in  the  early  stages  of  the  malady, 
take  it  to  a  healthy  herd,  where  its  presence  will  soon  occasion  an 
outbreak,  when  he  will  stand  ready  to  purchase  the  diseased  animals 
at  his  own  price  and  put  them  upon  the  market  to  be  used  for  beef. 

Investigation  has  shown  that  such  a  course  has  been  jDroductive 
of  a  great  deal  of  trouble,  and  we  have  considered  it  necessary  to 
restrict  them  in  their  manner  of  dealing,  in  order  to  arrest  the 
spread  of  the  malady.  With  that  object  in  view,  we  have  intro- 
duced a  system  of  granting  ^^^';?i2Y5,  requiring  all  those  desirous  of 
moving  cattle  to  call  at  this  office,  where  they  are  required  to  give 
their  name,  number,  or  residence,  number  of  cattle  and  where  they 
wish  to  take  them.  If,  upon  consulting  our  books,  the  person  does 
not  appear  as  having  cattle  that  have  been  previously  inspected,  an 
inspector  is  directed  to  the  place,  who  makes  an  examination,  and 
if  the  animals  are  found  free  from  disease,  as  well  as  the  place  where 
they  are  destined  to  go,  a  printed  form  of  permit  is  granted  from 
this  office  allowing  their  removal. 

By  this  means  they  may  be  traced  at  any  time,  and  any  effort 


A   NATIONAL   VETERINARY   POLICE  SYSTEil.  371 

on  the  part  of  the  deiiler  to  traffic  in  unheahhy  animals  is  prevented. 

This  course  proves  a  positive  protection  to  the  purchaser,  as 
well  as  requiring  the  dealer  to  traffic  only  in  healthy  stock  and 
secure  biin  a  good  reputation,  however  much  lie  may  desire  other- 
wise. All  cattle  leaving  infected  j)laces  must  be  accompanied  by 
a  permit  which  admits  of  their  being  taken  only  to  places  of 
slaughter,  where,  under  the  supervision  of  an  inspector,  they  arc 
destroyed,  and  a  proper  disposition  made  of  the  carcasses. 

lie  Inspection. — When  cattle  have  assumed  a  risk,  but  not  act- 
ually presenting  s}nnptoms  of  the  malady,  and  while  awaiting  its 
incubation,  it  has  always  been  the  custom,  in  this  as  well  as  in 
European  countries,  to  practice  occision ;  but,  believing  that  pro- 
ceediug  to  be  an  expensive  experiment,  we  have  adopted  the  rule 
of  allowing  the  animals  to  remain  in  provisional  quarantine ;  and 
from  time  to  time  making  reinspcctions,  by  which  means  we  are 
able  to  keep  the  stable  under  surveillance  during  the  incubative 
period,  when,  if  the  disease  does  not  appear,  the  quarantine  is  raised 
and  the  stock  declared  healthy.  This  manner  of  proceeding  being 
a  departure  from  the  rule  adopted  in  European  countries,  is  looked 
upon  with  disfavor  by  foreign  veterinarians,  notwithstanding  expe- 
rience has  taught  us  that  it  has  been  productive  of  a  great  saving  to 
this  State,  Several  stables,  containing  a  number  of  cattle,  were 
during  the  spring  months  quarantined  in  consequence  of  finding 
one  or  more  diseased  animals  in  them,  which  were  removed  and  de- 
stroyed, and  the  stables  subjected  to  an  occasional  reinspeetion  until 
six  months  had  elapsed,  when,  no  further  disease  being  manifest, 
the  quarantine  was  raised  and  the  premises  declared  free  from  all 
contagious  disease.  After  carefully  computing  the  cost  of  conduct- 
ing these  reinspcctions,  and  couqxiring  it  with  the  necessary  expense 
following  the  destruction  of  the  cattle,  there  is  a  handsome  balance 
in  favor  of  the  former  method. 

Miatahn  Theories.  —  Nine  months'  constant  intercourse  with 
"epizootic  contagious  pleuro-pneumonia"  has  established  the  fact 
that  many  erroneous  ideas  have  been  allowed  to  creep  into  the 
minds  of  the  people  in  regard  to  the  nature,  character,  means  of 
]irevention,  etc.,  of  the  malady,  and  foremost  among  them  is  inocic- 
hition. 

A  so-called  preventive  means  of  avoiding  the  spread  of  the  mal- 
ady is  practiced  with  varying  success.  The  following  are  the  views 
of  two  eminent  authorities  on  the  subject. 

Professor  Liautard,  Dean  of  the  American  Veterinary  College, 
says : 


372  THE   MEANS   OF  PREVENTION. 

"  The  prophylaxis  of  inoculation,  efficient  as  it  may  be  in  an 
epizootic  outbreak,  certainly  has  no  claims  for  adoption  in  connec- 
tion with  the  disease  as  it  now  exists,  for  it  would  only  prove  one 
of  the  surest  methods  of  spreading  the  malady,  while  our  aim  should 
be  to  confine  it  to  its  present  quarters,  and  then  eradicate  it  at  what- 
ever cost  the  method  may  entail." 

Referring  to  the  subject,  Clater  says : 

"■  Inoculation  has  been  practiced  with  questionable  success.  Ex- 
periments professing  to  be  for  the  object  of  testing  the  efficacy  of 
direct  inoculation  for  pleuro-pneumonia  have  been  recommended 
and  practiced  with  great  looseness.  The  peculiarly  subtle  character 
of  a  contagious  disease  is  not  sufficiently  weighed  with  care.  It  is 
a  very  general  practice  to  recommend  and  adopt  the  remedy  after 
an  animal  has  succumbed  to  the  affliction.  We  contend,  therefore, 
that  inoculation  in  such  cases  is  no  test  of  efficacy,  as  with  the  exist- 
ence of  pleuro-pneumonia  upon  the  farm,  no  one  can  arrive  at  a  safe 
conclusion  whether  the  consequence  of  the  malady  has  really  re- 
sulted from  a  direct  cause  or  from  the  artificial  means  employed. 

"All  the  profitable  terminations  of  pleuro-pneumonia  have  been 
witnessed  in  its  unmolested  march  through  a  herd  when  inoculated ; 
hence  our  disbelief  in  the  sufficiency  of  the  evidence  at  present  be- 
fore us." 

The  results  of  investigation  are  so  conflicting,  indefinite,  and  at 
variance  with  seeming  facts,  that  it  is  not  by  any  means  established 
that  any  degree  of  success  has  ever  been  obtained  by  its  use. 

There  is  not  a  single  instance,  so  far  as  we  have  been  able  to 
learn,  where  it  has  been  resorted  to  until  after  the  malady  had  act- 
ually attacked  a  herd,  when  more  or  less  of  its  number  might  rea- 
sonably be  supposed  to  have  assumed  a  risk. 

Now,  since  all  authorities  are  agreed  to  the  fact  that  its  incuba- 
tive period  ranges  all  the  way  from  ten  to  ninety  days,  we  can  not 
see  how  its  application  could  affect  an  animal  when  applied  at  about 
the  time  it  should  be  assuming  an  acute  character,  unless  we  can  go 
a  step  further  and  claim  for  it  a  curative  effect.  In  the  face  of  the 
fact  that  the  malady  often  exhausts  itself  with  attacking  but  one  or 
two  animals  out  of  a  herd  of  many  and  the  rest  suffering  immunity  ; 
also  that  the  disease  often  breaks  out  in  the  same  herd  after  inocu- 
lation has  been  performed,  as  well  as  the  negative  results  following 
its  use  in  England,  Belgium,  Australia,  and  other  countries  where 
the  disease  has  existed  for  a  long  time — we  think  there  is  but  little 
doubt,  notwithstanding  it  has  a  few  advocates,  that  it  has  thus  far 
proved  inert  to  accomplish  the  desired  result,  and  that  we  must 


A   NATIONAL  VETERINARY   POLICE  SYSTEM.  373 

look  elsewhere  for  a  more  substantial  means  of  eradicating  the 
disease. 

Careful  investi«!^ations  recently  prosecuted  from  this  office  in- 
duce us  to  fully  coincide  in  the  above  view  of  the  subject. 

In  this  month's  issue  of  the  "  Veterinary  Journal/'  Mr.  George 
Fleming,  in  an  editorial  article,  takes  strong  ground  in  favor  of  the 
treatment  which  he  bases  upon  the  result  of  experiments  conducted 
at  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  by  a  Mr.  Rutherford,  recently  from  Aus- 
tralia, lie  also  claims  advantages  following  its  application  tliere, 
which  are  at  variance  with  the  true  facts  in  the  case.  "\Ve  have 
made  some  eflfort  to  obtain  information  as  to  how  it  is  received 
there,  and  find  it  is  looked  upon  with  a  good  deal  of  disfavor, 

AVe  also  know  that,  notwithstanding  it  has  been  practiced  for  a 
number  of  years,  the  country  is  still  overrun  by  the  malady.  Sup- 
pose its  introduction  did  confer  immunity,  we  believe  it  would  still, 
owing  to  its  cost,  be  impracticable.  We  have  in  this  State  236,000 
head  of  cattle,  all  of  which  it  would  be  absolutely  necessary  to  in- 
oculate to  use  this  method,  and  when  we  consider  the  time  required 
to  reach  the  herd,  and  consumed  in  introducing  the  virus,  with  the 
cost  of  the  necessarily  diseased  animals  which  have  to  be  destroyed 
in  order  to  obtain  a  supply  of  virus,  we  may  safely  compute  it  at 
fifty  cents  per  head,  establishing  a  first  cost,  to  either  the  State  or 
the  individual  farmer,  of  not  less  than  $118,00(> ;  besides,  it  would 
be  necessary  for  the  first  few  years  to  treat  the  offspring  of  that 
immense  number  of  stock,  entailing  an  increased  expense. 

Other  Diseases. — Many  reported  cases,  in  young  stock,  upon  in- 
vestigation, prove  to  be  the  result  of  the  presence  in  the  bronchial 
tubes  of  the  parasite  Stron/julus  filai'lce^  species  Micruris.  In 
some  localities  it  exists  to  an  alarming  extent,  causing  a  severe  mor- 
tality. 

Its  symptoms  being  similar  to  pleuro-pneumonia,  it  is  usually 
mistaken  by  the  farmers  for  that  disease.  It  readily  yields  to  scien- 
tific treatment;  but,  owing  to  the  immense  loss  it  entails,  should 
receive  legislative  consideration.  Ilog-cholera,  likewise,  exists  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  State,  and  is  creating  a  good  deal  of  alarm, 
but,  not  coming  within  the  provisions  of  the  act  under  which  we 
are  working,  has  received  but  little  attention.  It  is  a  subject  that 
also  calls  for  legislative  action. 

Nt'W  FacU. — That  we  meet  forms  of  pleuro-pneumonia  varying 
in  degrees  of  vinilence  is  beyond  question,  and  to  that  fact  may  be 
attributed  the  difference  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  efficacy  of  in- 
oculation.   "When,  as  frequently  found,  the  malady  will  run  through 


374  THE  MEANS  OF  PREVENTION. 

a  herd,  causing  perhaps  the  loss  of  but  one  or  two  out  of  a  large 
number  of  animals,  and  affecting  the  remainder  to  so  slight  a  degree 
that  the  layman  can  scarcely  appreciate  it,  we  must  admit  it  differs 
widely  from  that  form  which  (under  similar  circumstances)  causes  a 
mortality  of  fifty  and  sometimes  sixty  per  cent.  To  the  former  type 
may  be  traced  the  cause  for  the  disputed  question.  Does  an  animal 
once  affected  ever  recover  ?  We  are  inclined  to  the  negative  side 
of  the  question  :  after  having  destroyed  a  number  of  cases  that  have 
passed  through  a  mild  attack  of  the  malady,  we  have  found  upon 
examination  lung  lesions  generally  in  an  encapsulated  form. 

These  cases  we  are  willing  to  admit  are  perfectly  safe  to  mingle 
in  a  herd,  so  long  as  the  capsule  walling  up  the  disease-germs  re- 
mains intact,  but  if  it  should  break  down,  a  condition  we  may  very 
reasonably  look  for,  and  those  germs  be  allowed  to  escape,  shall  we 
not  have  another  outbreak  ?  If  it  is  true,  as  claimed,  that  the  dis- 
ease-germs are  imprisoned  and  lie  dormant  in  the  lung  for  months, 
even  years,  the  question  very  naturally  presents  itself,  Do  they  in 
the  mean  time  lose  their  infecting  principle?  Until  this  vexed 
question  is  settled  beyond  doubt,  we  advise  as  a  means  of  preven- 
tion the  destruction  of  all  such  cases. 

Very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

Ja3ies  C.  Coelies,  D.  Y.  S. 

To  General  W.  H.  Sterling,  249  Washington  Street,  Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  work  accomplished  :  I^umber 
of  cattle  inspected,  40,309  ;  diseased,  572,  of  which  315  were  de- 
stroyed. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  report  that  "  dealers "  in  cattle  are  a 
source  of  great  trouble  to  those  intrusted  with  the  execution  of  laws 
against  contagious  animal  diseases. 

I  wish  also  to  express  my  earnest  opposition  to  inoculation,  so 
far  as  it  may  be  advocated  as  a  preventive  means  for  this  country. 
Were  it  absolutely  necessary  that  every  head  of  cattle  in  this  coun- 
try should  have  the  disease,  either  in  a  natural  or  artificial  form,  in 
order  to  put  a  stop  to  its  ravages,  then  this  procedure  would  be  jus- 
tifiable. At  present  it  is  not.  The  disease  has  not  as  yet  acquired 
any  very  devastating  extension,  although,  from  the  want  of  really 
competent  veterinarians,  it  is  doubtful  if  we  know  exactly  to  what 
degree  it  has  extended  in  all  the  States  where  it  is  now  domesticated. 
We  shall  know  in  time  to  our  cost.  Were  our  people  so  educated 
that  they  could  really  appreciate  the  truly  devastating  character  of 
this  animal  pest ;  were  our  legislators  at  all  adequate  to  the  demands 


A  NATIONAL  VETERINARY  POLICE  SYSTEM.  876 

we  Lave  a  right  to  make  upon  thom,  there  would  not  be  an  isolated 
case  of  lung-plague  in  this  country  in  six  months  from  this  time. 
Alas  I  unity  of  action  is  the  last  thing  to  bo  expected  of  an  Ameri- 
can Congress.  While  political  pettifoggers  are  squabbling  over  party- 
bones,  the  people  are  being  daily  robbed  of  millions  of  dollars  by 
the  ravages  of  different  animal  pests,  and  that  other  pest,  equally 
dangerous,  quacks. 

If  all  the  cattle  having  this  disease  could  be  at  once  killed  and 
paid  for  by  the  Government ;  if  all  suspected  animals,  which  in- 
cludes all  which  have  been  in  contact  with  them,  could  be  isolated 
and  quarantined,  or  else  at  once  killed,  and  sold  for  flesh  ;  if  it  were 
possible  to  subject  all  cattle  entering  our  territory  from  Canada  or 
from  across  the  Atlantic  to  an  appropriate  quarantine — then  we 
might  soon  be  rid  of  this  destroyer,  and  keep  it  foreign  to  our 
shores.  This  is  impossible  at  present.  "We  have  not  the  necessary 
laws,  and  it  is  still  more  doubtful  if  we  have  at  our  command  the 
necessary  number  of  qualified  veterinarians. 

I  wish  to  say  a  word  about  cattle-inspection  at  points  of  delivery. 
In  one  sense  of  the  word  it  is  useless.  Unless  an  inspector  knows 
that  a  given  lot  of  cattle  have  come  from  a  suspected  locality,  he  has 
no  more  right  to  condemn  them  for  pleuro-pncumonia  contagiosa 
than  for  an  ordinary  pneumonia  before  an  autopsy  has  been  made. 
Many  people  seem  to  think  that  it  is  easy  to  recognize  this  disease 
in  the  living  animal,  whether  one  knows  the  history  of  the  case  or 
not.  In  truth,  no  two  animal  diseases  present  so  many  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  recognition  of  their  true  character  as  this  disease 
and  pulmonary  glanders.  The  differential  diagnosis  between  a  de- 
veloped case  of  lung-plague  in  cattle  and  tuberculosis  is  by  no 
means  difficult,  although  many  would  have  it  that  it  is  so.  All  cat- 
tle, or  other  animals  destined  for  transport,  should  have  a  "clean 
bill  of  health"  signed  bj' a  State  veterinarian  at  the  place  of  pur- 
chase, and  attested  to  by  the  proper  legal  official.  This  should  be 
an  invariable  nde  of  animal  transport.  With  this  precaution,  and 
careful  regulation  of  the  cattle  during  transport,  there  is  but  little 
danger  of  the  spread  of  such  diseases  from  one  point  to  another.  It 
is  evident  that,  if  the  laws  in  the  respective  States  were  different 
in  this  regard,  all  action  would  be  made  null  and  void.  All  pneu- 
monias are  not  pleuro-pneumonia ;  yet,  how  is  the  inspector  at  the 
place  of  destination  or  final  shipment  to  distinguish  one  from  the 
other,  unless  he  knows  the  history,  or  has  condemned  one  to  necro- 
scopical  examination  ?  The  truth  is,  but  few  veterinarians  in  this 
country  really  know  the  pathological  character  of  an  ordinary  bovine 


376  THE   MEANS  OF  PREVENTION. 

pneumonia.  Cattle  are  so  phlegmatic,  they  can  endure  so  much, 
that  but  very  few  of  them  die  from  this  disease ;  yet  it  is  a  fact  of 
pathological  interest,  at  least,  that  the  fully  developed  simple  pneu- 
monia of  cattle  is  the  only  form  among  our  domestic  animals  which 
bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  cheesy  pneumonia  of  man. 

Mr.  John  Gamgee  says  that  "England  loses  two  million  pounds 
sterling  annually  from  this  disease."  * 

Fleming  says :  "  The  losses  from  only  two  exotic  bovine  mala- 
dies (contagious  pleuro-pneumonia,  and  the  so-called  'foot-and- 
mouth  disease ')  have  been  estimated  to  amount,  during  the  thirty 
years  that  have  elapsed  since  our  ports  were  thrown  open  to  foreign 
cattle,  to  5,549,780  head,  roughly  estimated  at  £83,616,854.  The 
late  invasion  of  '  cattle-plague,'  which  was  suppressed  within  two 
years  of  its  introduction,  has  been  calculated  to  have  caused  a  money 
loss  of  from  five  to  eight  millions  of  pounds.  But  these  examples 
and  estimates,  after  all,  give  but  a  slender  idea  of  the  devastation, 
misery,  embarrassment,  and  loss  that  have  been  due  to  ignorance, 
apathy,  and  neglect  of  the  teachings  of  veterinary  science,  which 
must,  nevertheless,  claim  the  merit  of  having  conclusively  demon- 
strated that  the  most  formidable  diseases  can  be  readily  repressed, 
or  altogether  abolished,  though  not  by  attempting  to  cure  them,  and, 
having  done  this,  nothing  more  remains  than  to  indicate  the  steps 
necessary  to  make  the  legislation  of  a  wise  government  effective  in 
its  dealings  with  animal  plagues  in  general."  f 

It  is  scarcely  possible  for  us  to  comprehend  the  monetary  loss 
this  disease  has  caused  since  its  history  began,  not  to  speak  of  the 
misery  it  has  brought  upon  many  poor  people. 

There  is  at  present  but  one  rule  for  its  treatment :  No  temporiz- 
ing.    Immediate  slaughter,  and  redemption  by  the  Government. 

We  have,  fortunately,  not  yet  been  visited  by  the  rinderpest. 
Should  that  day  ever  come,  there  will  be  mourning  in  the  land — 
Columbia  weeping  for  her  property,  and  little  comfort  will  she  get 
from  church  or  State,  unless  we  mend  our  ways  and  act  more  intelli- 
gently. 

The  people  of  this  country  have  no  idea  as  to  the  real  nature  of  a 
contagious  animal  disease.  To  this  end  it  may  be  possible  that  they 
need  the  presence  of  this  destroyer.  The  horse  epizootic  of  1871 
and  1872  was  certainly  infectious  enough,  but  this  disease  is  equally 
infectious,  and  so  much  more  devastating  that  it  is  impossible  for 
words  to  fitly  express  it.     It  is  not  slow  and  sneaking  in  its  prog- 

*  "  Report  on  the  Cattle  Diseases  in  the  United  States,"  Washington,  1871. 
I  "  Animal  Plagues,"  introduction,  p.  xxxiv. 


A   NATIONAL   VETERINAKY   POLICE    SYSTEM.  377 

ress.  It  breaks  loose  in  a  ni^lit ;  ay,  in  an  hour;  and,  like  a  (lemon 
incarnate,  it  frequently  sweeps  the  bovine  family  before  it.  Russia 
loses  millions  every  year  from  it.  Germany  scarcely  passes  free 
from  its  ravages  for  any  single  year,  though  they  are  at  present 
very  quickly  stamped  out.  In  1878  she  lost  2,500  cattle,  having  a 
value  of  about  half  a  million  dollars.  England  lost  some  twenty-tive 
million  dollars'  worth  of  cattle  in  the  last  great  invasion  which  she 
suffered  in  1805,  1800,  and  1807. 

AVe  have  in  this  country  the  "  Texas  disease  "  of  cattle,  the  real 
nature  or  causes  of  which  we  at  present  know  very  little  about.  It 
produces  no  inconsiderable  loss  each  year,  however,  and  the  States, 
the  frontiers  of  which  border  on  lands  where  this  disease  seems  to  be 
domesticated,  have  been  obliged  to  make  laws  regulating  the  traflfic 
in  cattle.  The  Agricultural  Connnissioner  pretends  to  give  some 
statistics  with  reference  to  the  losses  the  people  suffer  from  swine- 
plague.  In  1870  it  was  reported  that  the  loss  from  this  disease 
alone  amounted  to  some  820,000,000.  The  report  for  1878  gives 
$30,000,000  as  the  amount  of  loss  to  the  country  from  all  conta- 
gious animal  diseases.  These  are  estimates — nothing  more.  It  is 
absolutely  impossible  to  gain  any  reliable  statistics  in  a  country 
where  there  is  no  system  of  veterinary  laws  or  an  efficient  veteri- 
nary police.  The  value  of  reliable  statistics,  with  reference  to  the 
extension  of  contagious  disease  among  our  animals,  can  not  be  over- 
estimated. Until  we  have  them,  it  will  be  useless  to  hope  for  much 
conformable  legislation.  Every  observing  citizen  must  at  once  per- 
ceive the  immense  tax  which  these  diseases  impose  upon  the  nation. 

It  is  highly  probable  that,  were  the  real  facts  known,  their  rav- 
ages have  cost  the  people  more  in  the  last  hundred  years  of  our  ex- 
istence than  our  national  debt  amounts  to. 

Every  one  should  know  that,  if  not  absolutely  preventable,  yet  it 
is  possible  for  a  competent  veterinary  police  to  reduce  these  losses  to 
a  very  low  minimum. 

Cxermany,  with  its  efficient  code  of  laws  and  veterinary  police,  is 
continually  proving  this  ;  while  Britain  and  ourselves  as  frequently 
give  proof  of  the  incapacity  of  our  respective  Governments  in  this 
regard. 

Xo  preventioii  can  be  hope<l  for  until  we  have  the  neces.sary 
implements  to  work  with.  These  implements  are  a  national  code 
of  police  laws,  corresponding  to  the  results  obtained  by  modern  sci- 
entific investigation,  and  an  efficient  body  of  educated  veterinari- 
ans to  execute  them.  With  reference  to  the  latter,  men  of  very 
ordinary  education  can  do  the  "  pole-axe  "  business  ;  the  graduates 


378  THE  MEANS   OF  PREVENTION. 

of  our  present  American  veterinary  colleges  being  equal  to  that, 
while  they  are  utterly  incapable  of  doing  the  higher  state-work — 
i.  e.j  making  researches  into  the  causes  and  nature  of  disease.  This 
is  no  reflection  upon  them  personally.  It  is  upon  conditions  which 
do  not  give  men  desiring  them  suitable  opportunities  for  acquiring 
an  education  which  would  fit  them  for  this  work.  At  present,  how- 
ever, we  have  to  do  with  the  question  of  a  national  code  of  veteri- 
nary police  laws.  This  word  "  national "  is  a  peculiar  bugbear  to 
many  people  in  this  country,  who  can  not  rise  above  party  affilia- 
tions or  sectional  jealousy.  Ifatioyial  does  mean  centralization — 
nothing  else.  The  question  to  be  considered — and  in  politics  it  is  a 
truly  scientific  one — is,  how  much  centralization  is  necessary  for  the 
good  of  the  whole  country,  and  how  much  individuality  can  be  al- 
lowed the  respective  States,  without  their  interfering  with  the  rights 
of  each  other.  We  have  in  this  country  a  singular  phenomenon.  We 
have  multiplied  the  sacred  rights  of  the  individual  to  such  a  degree 
that  the  masses  have  scarcely  any  rights  left.  We  are  continually 
in  fear  of  trampling  upon  the  rights  of  the  individual.  In  doing 
this,  we  forget  that  the  masses  have  still  greater  rights.  IS'o  indi- 
vidual has  any  right  to  pursue  a  course  or  suffer  considerations 
which  endanger  the  property  or  interfere  with  the  rights  of  the 
masses.  Unfortunately,  instead  of  "  the  masses,"  we  act  as  if  one 
individual  is  alone  to  be  considered.  It  is  this  "right  of  the  British 
freeman  "  which  has  been  the  chief  obstacle  to  the  suppression  of 
contagious  animal  diseases  in  Britain.  I  do  not  think  our  American 
citizens  are  such  obstinate  and  ignorant  sticklers  for  their  individual 
rights  as  Englishmen.  In  conversing  with  a  number  of  intelligent 
farmers  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston,  where  pleuro-pneumonia  had  pre- 
vailed in  times  past,  I  found  that  they  were  mostly  entirely  unac- 
quainted with  the  true  purposes  of  the  laws  for  the  suppression  of 
this  disease.  As  is  well  known,  Massachusetts  deported  herself 
most  energetically  and  creditably  at  this  time,  successfully  extermi- 
nating the  disease,  and  keeping  it  from  her  borders  ever  since. 
These  farmers  seemed,  however,  to  have  the  idea  that  they,  or  their 
neighbors,  or  town,  had  been  most  unjustly  treated.  They  had 
never  gained  the  idea  that,  by  slaughtering  all  the  cattle  of  a  few 
owners,  those  of  the  majority  were  saved,  and  the  town  spared  a 
much  greater  loss.  The  rights  of  the  individual  are  as  nothing 
when  those  of  the  masses  are  endangered ;  yet  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
latter  to  amply  remunerate  the  former  for  the  loss  they  have  caused 
him  to  incur  for  their  2>i'otection.  This  is  the  sole  and  only  prin- 
ciple which  should  guide  legislators  in  drafting  laws.     Especially  is 


A   NATIONAL   VETERINARY    POLICE   SYSTEM,  379 

this  true  with  reference  to  those  we  are  now  considering.  This  prin- 
ciple is  ecpiuUy  applicable  to  our  respective  States.  Without  such 
centralization — i.  e.,  without  sotne  one  controlling,  inciting,  directing 
])ower — nothing  was  ever  yet  acconij)lished.  The  question  of  regu- 
hition  is  to  tind  the  proper  relation  of  such  a  power  to  the  other  ele- 
ments or  powers  by  which  it  is  surrounded,  that  the  greatest  good 
for  all  concerned  may  result  from  their  united  action.  This  prin- 
ciple is  one  of  true  politics.  "Whether  it  be  true  repul)licanisin  or 
democracy  I  do  not  know,  and  care  even  less.  Tiie  family  can 
not  well  exist  without  its  head.  The  ship  can  not  pursue  her  coui-se 
over  the  sea  without  her  responsible  captain.  No  business  has  ever 
succeeded  without  its  competent  and  accountable  head.  "  Too  many 
cooks  spoil  the  broth  "  is  a  homely  but  true  saying.  As  a  nation, 
we  stand  at  present  impotent  before  the  ravages  of  the  infectio- 
contagious  animal  diseases.  AVe  shall  never  get  much  beyond  this 
impotent  stage  if  we  adhere  to  the  State-rights  doctrine  with  refer- 
ence to  the  suppression  and  prevention  of  these  diseases.  This  doc- 
trine requires  special  notice  at  the  present  moment.  "We  are  ap- 
proaching a  period  in  our  history  when  the  different  State  Legisla- 
tures will  be  called  upon  to  make  some  kind  of  laws  and  regulations 
with  reference  to  this  question.  Reflecting  men,  those  best  compe- 
tent to  judge,  are  also  endeavoring  to  urge  the  General  Government 
to  do  likewise.  The  real  question,  which  must  be  discussed  with 
cool  and  unprejudiced  brains,  is,  Which  step  is  the  more  likely  to  be 
of  most  lasting  benefit  to  the  people  of  the  whole  country,  as  well  as 
those  of  sinjrle  sections  I  Dr.  Bowditch,  in  his  valuable  essav,  "  Pub- 
lie  Hygiene  in  America,"  tells  us  that  we  have  at  i)resent  (1876) 
twenty-one  States  without  either  law  or  regulation  looking  to  the 
suppression  or  prevention  of  these  diseases.  In  ten  States  there 
were  some,  and  sixteen  were  reported  as  indefinite,  while  from  one 
State  it  was  impossible  to  gain  any  information.  Our  markets  are 
all  without  the  supervision  of  competent  inspectoiv,  notwithstanding 
the  great  danger  to  the  poorer  classes,  more  so  than  the  rich,  of  dis- 
ease of  a  disturbing  if  not  fatal  chamcter,  from  the  consum]>tion 
of  diseased  meat.  No  State  in  this  Union,  so  far  as  I  know,  has  a 
State  veterinarian  in  the  true  sense.  In  some  there  is  a  veterinarian 
attached  to  some  agricultural  society ;  in  others,  to  a  cattle  com- 
mission. The  few  regulations  which  exist  in  some  States  are  totally 
inadequate  to  the  purpose.  They  almost  entirely  fail  in  properly 
defining  the  duties  of  the  public.  Quacks  are  in  no  way  made  re- 
sponsible for  the  proper  notification  to  the  authoritii-s  of  the  pres- 
ence of  a  suspected  contagious  disease  in  a  given  animal.     In  fact, 


380  THE  MEANS  OF  PREVEXTION. 

our  laws  are  of  such  a  nature  that,  while  in  some  cases,  as  in  pleuro- 
pneumonia, they  allow  of  quite  satisfactory  action,  because  of  the 
very  limited  extension  of  the  disease,  in  others,  as  glanders,  they  are 
next  to  useless,  because  of  the  great  extension  which  the  disease  has 
already  acquired  among  our  horses.  One  of  our  greatest  errors  is, 
that  we  have  made  no  use  of  the  few  competent  veterinary  practi- 
tioners in  the  country.  Our  laws  serve  only  to  make  one  man  very 
prominent  without  being  of  the  service  to  the  State  that  they 
should  be.  It  is  in  the  interests  of  the  peoj)le  that  the  veterinary 
profession  be  made  of  use,  and  not  that  a  single  veterinary  com- 
missioner, in  unison  with  several  citizen  members,  have  the  en- 
tire work  to  do.  It  can  not  be  done,  as  is  sufficiently  proven  in 
Massachusetts,  where  we  have  an  old  and  well-tried  veterinarian 
on  the  cattle  commission.  While  they  did  kill  out  plem'o-pneu- 
mouia,  it  has  been  sufficiently  demonstrated  that  they  are  next  to 
powerless  in  fighting  glanders  single-handed.  We  seem  to  think 
that,  having  organized  a  "  cattle  commission,"  our  work  is  done  ; 
as  if  there  were  no  other  animal  diseases  worthy  of  consideration ! 
Finally,  in  some  States  they  attached  a  section  with  reference  to 
glanders,  and  with  that  we  have  thus  far  rested  content.  Such  a 
system  is  next  to  useless.  It  can  never  lead  to  any  reliable  statis- 
tics. These  laws  or  regulations  in  the  different  States  have  very 
little  in  common.  In  many  States  they  are  simply  dead  letters, 
there  being  no  competent  authority  to  see  them  properly  exe- 
cuted. "  What  is  everybody's  business  is  nobody's."  In  no  one 
sense  is  the  saying,  "  In  union  there  is  strength,"  more  strictly  true 
than  in  combating  contagious  animal  diseases.  It  may  be  positively 
asserted  that,  if  we  adhere  strictly  to  the  principle  of  State-rights 
in  this  regard,  all  our  endeavors  to  prevent  and  suppress  these  dis- 
eases will  be  weak  and  of  but  httle  avail. 

All  must  admit  that  the  manner  of  viewing  any  given  subject 
is  not  the  same  even  among  a  few  individuals.  How  much  less 
likely  is  this  to  be  the  case  among  large  bodies  jealous  of  each 
other !  These  great  differences  of  opinion  are  largely  dependent 
upon  a  difference  in  information  and  education  by  the  individual 
members ;  and,  secondly,  upon  a  varying  degree  of  appreciation  of 
the  nature  of  a  threatened  danger.  A  large  amount  of  reading  and 
reflection  is  necessary  before  men  are  competent  to  logically  legis- 
late on  any  given  subject,  and  on  none  more  so  than  that  we  are  at 
present  considering. 

Hence  it  is  that  in  some  States  we  should  have  more  or  less 
suitable  laws  with  a  corresponding  execution  of  the  same,  while  in 


A   NATIONAL   VETERINARY    POLICE   SYSTEM.  3S1 

others  quite  tlie  contrarv  would  be  the  case.  Only  M'hen  a  coin- 
inon  chm«;er  exists,  or  when  there  is  some  ccntriil  and  controlling 
power  to  spur  men  on  to  their  duty,  and  warn  them  of  their  dan- 
ger, do  we  have  energetic  and  uniform  action.  The  results  of  this 
condition  of  things  may  be  made  more  a])i)arent  by  supposing  that 
pleuro-pneumonia  is  present  in  two  or  more  adjoining  States.  The 
authorities  of  one  of  these  States,  thoroughly  aware  of  the  dangers 
to  which  her  bovine  population  is  exposed,  and  not  regardless,  we 
may  hope,  of  their  duty  to  sister  States,  have  made  ample  provision 
of  money,  and  drafted  a]ipropriate  regulations  for  "  stamping  out  " 
the  disease.  The}'  have  selected  special  persons  to  execute  the  same. 
On  tlie  other  hand,  the  authorities  of  an  adjoining  State  have  de- 
cided to  follow  the  temporizing  policy.  They  seem  to  fear  a  primary 
outlay,  not  appreciating  that  a  small  outlay,  well  expended,  at  tirst, 
may  save  an  immense  expense  in  the  future.  The  regulations  of 
this  State,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  executed,  are  of  that 
form  which  serve  to  express  a  fear  of  the  ill-will  of  the  people. 
Her  legislators  seem  to  have  their  attention  more  earnestly  fixed 
upon  influences  likely  to  interfere  with  the  next  elections,  rather 
than  on  their  duties  to  the  people.  They  appear  to  utterly  ignore 
any  responsibility  with  reference  to  their  duties  toward  adjoining 
States.  They  make  of  their  State  a  hot-house  from  which  pesti- 
lential germs  may  be  disseminated,  not  only  to  adjoining  States,  but 
even  to  those  more  distantly  situated.  Of  what  use,  then,  is  all  the 
outlay  of  time,  money,  and  labor  by  the  authorities  of  the  first- 
named  State  i  To  prevent  the  disease  extending  over  her  borders, 
she  must  treat  her  sister  State  as  an  enemy.  She  must  place  an  em- 
bargo, not  only  on  all  cattle  from  that  State,  but  upon  all  passing 
throriffh  that  State.  She  can  allow  no  cattle  to  cross  her  frontiers 
from  a  State  where  the  laws  are  less  stringent,  or  poorly  executed, 
without  first  subjecting  them  to  inspection,  and  frcijucntly  to  quar- 
antine. Were  this  regulation  carried  out  along  a  long  line  of  traffic 
through  different  States,  it  requires  no  stress  of  the  imagination  to 
perceive  the  great  disturbances  which  our  trade  in  domestic  animals 
would  suffer.  In  the  case  of  glanders  it  will  be  absolutely  impos- 
sible to  keep  it  properly  confined  within  narrow  limits,  unless  we 
have  the  same  laws  and  regulations  for  every  State  in  the  T'nion, 
and  equally  stringent  execution  of  the  same.  Otherwise,  such 
horses  can  be  nm  backward  and  forward  across  State  boundaries,  or 
the  result  will  be  that  the  disease  will  acquire  an  undcsiral)le  exten- 
sion in  those  States  where  the  laws  are  lax,  or  where  they  are  but 
dead  letters  for  the  want  of  proper  execution.     The  people  of  such 


382  THE  MEANS  OF  PREVENTION. 

a  State  will  then  suffer  losses  which  thej  richly  deserve.  We  find  it 
necessary  to  have  national  laws  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  con- 
tagious human  diseases  from  foreign  countries.  Is  it  not  equally 
necessary  that  we  have  such  a  code  of  laws  as  will  best  protect  the 
animal  property  of  all  the  people  in  this  country  to  the  same  degree, 
and  not  (as  will  be  the  invariable  result,  if  we  leave  the  States 
to  make  their  own  laws)  have  such  codes,  as  to  offer  but  incom- 
plete protection  to  the  people  of  any  State  ?  The  universal  testi- 
mony of  all  men  who  have  busied  themselves  with  the  suppression 
of  contagious  animal  diseases  is,  that  it  is  rendered  doubly  difficult 
because  of  the  ease  with  which  owners  can  get  rid  of  diseased  or 
suspected  animals.  Dealers  are,  in  general,  only  too  willing  to  take 
advantage  of  such  opportunities  to  get  cheap  bargains,  and  they  are 
equally  regardless  of  the  interests  of  the  community  in  transporting 
them.  A  man  sick  with  a  contagious  disease  gladly  stays  at  home. 
But  if  a  person  practicing  as  a  veterinarian  informs  most  owners  of 
the  presence  or  the  suspicion  of  a  contagious  disease  among  their  ani- 
mals, the  owner's  first  endeavor  is  to  get  them  off ;  and  experience 
has  proved  that  many  of  them  care  very  little  about  the  danger  of 
infection  to  which  they  subject  the  property  of  other  men.  This  is 
absolute  testimony  to  the  necessity  of  regulating  the  duties  of  em- 
pirics and  quacks  in  the  practice  of  veterinary  medicine,  as  well  as 
owners.  The  duties  of  graduates  must  naturally  also  be  regulated 
by  law.  With  reference  to  the  trustworthiness  and  public  spirit 
of  owners,  a  most  interesting  example  occurred  in  connection  with 
trichinosis  in  swine  within  a  few  weeks. 

A  gentleman  came  to  me  one  afternoon,  and  in  a  very  bombas- 
tic manner  requested  me  to  examine  two  pieces  of  pork.  These 
hogs  had  been  fattened  by  himself,  and,  as  he  expressed  it,  were 
"  blooded  Berkshires."  It  was,  or  is,  his  custom  to  fatten  two  each 
year,  and  present  pieces  of  "  home-fed  pork  "  to  his  friends  at  Christ- 
mas. One  piece  was  free,  but  the  other  was  very  badly  trichinous. 
On  showing  them  to  the  gentleman  upon  a  hot  table  attached  to  the 
microscope,  so  that  he  could  see  the  worms  squinn  about,  he  called 
me  a  "  swindler,"  and  intimated  that  I  had  introduced  them  surrep- 
titiously into  the  specimen.  Convincing  him  of  his  error,  however, 
he  somewhat  recovered  his  temper,  and  remarked  that  he  certainly 
could  not  think  of  presenting  such  pork  to  his  friends,  and  that  some 
would  have  to  go  without  their  present  this  year.  "  But  there  is  no 
law  against  my  sending  it  to  market,  is  there  ? "  To  which  I  am 
sorry  I  had  to  answer  that  there  was  not,  nor  could  I  prevent  it ; 
but  that  I  thought  the  rendering  establishment  the  best  place  for  it. 


A   NATIONAL   VETEUIXARY    TOLICE   SYSTEM.  383 

The  answer,  and  tlie  manner  in  which  it  was  given,  were  sonietliing 
really  worth  recording.  "  Thank  God,  there's  some  freedom  left  in 
Massachusetts  ! "  said  this  pattern  of  Boston  aristocracy  ;  for  the  gen- 
tleman is  one  frequently  })ointed  out  as  an  example  of  honesty  and 
Christian  virtues.  '*  Thank  God,  there's  some  freedom  left  in  Mas- 
sachusetts''  for  a  -wealthy  man  to  sell  pork  which,  if  a  little  under- 
done, can  cause  the  serious  illness  of  persons  consuming  it,  or  even 
death !  Is  there  not  need  for  laws  to  prevent  the  sale  of  improper 
food  by  technical  examination?  If  a  person  of  this  man's  worldly 
standing  has  no  moral  responsibility,  what  have  -we  to  expect  from 
the  ordinary  owner  of  hoi'ses,  cattle,  etc.  ?  Every  one  at  all  ac- 
quainted with  the  internal  arrangements  of  the  German  Empire 
must  know  that  there  is  far  more  jealousy  betw'een  the  different 
kingdoms  of  which  it  is  composed  than  there  is  between  the  differ- 
ent States  composing  our  Union.  Notwithstanding  this,  these  gov- 
ernments have  seen  the  absolute  necessity  of  an  imperial  code  of 
laws  for  the  suppression  of  the  contagious  animal  diseases,  experi- 
ence having  proved  the  state  laws  hitherto  in  existence  insufficient 
for  the  purpose,  there  being  here  and  there  a  dissimilarity  which  re- 
sulted in  evil  consequence  to  the  people  of  one  state  or  another. 
"We  need  not  copy  literally  the  German  laws,  but  we  can  study 
them  and  adapt  them  to  our  uses.  It  is  high  time  that  active  steps 
were  taken,  in  this  country,  in  this  direction. 

To  this  end  our  national  Congress  should  either  select  a  commis- 
sion of  honest  men,  or  authorize  the  President  to  select  such  from 
among  the  leading  stock-raisers  of  the  country,  one  from  each  of 
our  great  geographical  sections.  This  commission  should  select 
three  of  the  ablest  approved  veterinarians  in  the  country,  and  two 
able  and  non-partisan  lawyers.  These  five  men  should  be  paid  to 
make  a  study  of  the  veterinary  police  laws  and  institutions  of  such 
countries  as  are  worthy  of  consideration,  and  should  then  draft  a 
national  code  of  laws  and  regulations  in  strict  accord  with  the  re- 
suits  of  tlie  best  scientific  research,  and  with  exact  regard  to  logic 
and  cxplicitness  in  language.  These  laws  should  be  accepted  by 
Congress  and  by  the  respective  State  Legislatures.  Such  a  plan  in 
no  way  interferes  with  the  right  of  States  to  make  such  special 
laws  and  regulations,  in  addition  to  tlicm,  as  their  local  needs,  posi- 
tions, or  other  requirements  may  demand  ;  and  furthermore,  as  will 
presently  be  seen,  our  plan  will  provide  each  State  with  a  competent 
and  trustworthy  body  of  men  to  execute  the  laws.  From  these 
three,  and  others,  if  they  desire,  should  be  selected  a  person  to  be 
known  as  Yeterinarj'  Inspector-General  of  the  United  States.     This 


384:  THE   MEANS   OF  PREVENTION. 

position  should  never  be  disgraced  by  being  filled  by  political  favor- 
ites of  congressmen,  secretaries,  or  commissioners.  The  present 
Commissioner  of  Agriculture  would  gladly  have  the  appointment 
given  over  to  his  dispensation.  Fortunately,  Congress  has  not  yet 
seen  fit  to  give  him  such  a  liberty.  A  man  must,  at  least,  know 
something  of  the  duties  of  the  office  to  be  filled,  if  he  is  to  appoint 
an  incumbent.  This  position  must  be  filled  on  its  merits,  and  by 
public  competition  before  the  members  of  the  National  Board  of 
Health  in  the  first  place  ;  but  when  the  time  comes,  the  incumbent 
should  be  elected  by  vote  of  the  trustees  and  teachers  of  the  national 
school,  from  among  the  State  veterinary  inspector-generals  of  the 
country.  No  teacher  or  professor  of  the  school  should  ever  be 
eligible  to  the  office  so  long  as  they  were  connected  with  that  insti- 
tution. In  no  other  way  should  it  be  possible  for  any  man  to  gain 
the  position.  Science  is  the  search  after  truth.  A  scientist  who 
uses  the  ways  of  politicians  to  gain  a  position  does  not  deserve  the 
name.  Science  is  open  as  the  day.  Politics  is  as  dark  and  intricate 
as  the  passages  of  a  coal-mine,  and  about  as  dirty.  Science  is  not 
politics,  as  we  see  it  displayed  in  America.  There  is  such  a  thing 
as  political  science,  but  it  has  not  yet  been  introduced  into  our  legis- 
lative halls.  The  great  men  of  science  have  been  the  truest  servants 
of  mankind.  Scientists  are  patriots,  not  demagogues  or  political 
hucksters,  ready  to  sell  their  birthright  for  a  mess  of  pottage. 

The  "Veterinary  Inspector-General  of  the  United  States  should 
be  attached  to  the  National  Board  of  Health,  as  should  all  State 
inspector-generals  to  State  boards.  The  whole  system  of  veterinary 
sanitary  police  should  be  part  and  parcel  of  one  grand  national  sani- 
tary system,  working  in  the  interests  of  true  preventive  medicine. 

These  officers  should  hold  their  positions  until  sixty  years  old, 
unless  incapacitated  for  work  by  sickness.  They  should  be  liberally 
paid ;  and,  in  case  of  retirement,  their  pay  should  be  continued  to 
them  during  life.  The  nation  and  the  States  need  all  their  energies 
and  time. 

On  his  death,  if  leaving  a  widow  or  minor  children,  the  former 
should  have  at  least  two  thirds  of  the  husband's  pension  during  life, 
and  the  children  a  proportionate  share  until  sixteen  years  of  age. 
The  State  inspector-generals  should  be  selected  by  public  compe- 
tition of  approved  veterinarians  before  the  members  of  the  State 
Board  of  Health.  In  each  State  there  must  be  county,  district,  mar- 
ket, and  other  local  veterinary  officials.  These  men  must  first  have 
passed  a  special  examination,  instituted  for  the  purpose,  with  refer- 
ence to  sanitary  police  duties,  at  the  National  Veterinary  Institute. 


A   NATIOXAL   VETERINARY   POLICE   SYSTEM.  385 

Until  such  an  institution  is  organized,  the  competitions  should  take 
place  before  the  members  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  each 
State.  They  should  receive  a  certain  amount  of  pay  per  year  for 
othcial  work,  and  in  no  case  should  they  hold  office  after  becoming 
sixty  years  old.  They  should  not  be  subject  to  pensions,  as  their 
official  ]iositions  should  assist  them  in  practice  by  guaranteeing  to 
the  people  their  superior  education.  Local  insjiectors,  while  belong- 
ing to  the  force,  such  as  market  and  milk  inspectors,  should  be  paid 
by  the  respective  local  authorities.  State  inspectors,  ordered  to  at- 
tend horse  or  cattle  fairs  or  markets,  should  be  paid  for  the  time  of 
service  by  the  respective  associations.  The  State  should  fix  the 
price,  -which  should  be  liberal,  and  allow  for  all  traveling  and  inci- 
dental expenses. 

We  can  not  expect  any  intelligent  appreciation,  on  the  part  of 
the  public,  of  the  value  of  such  a  sanitary  system,  unless  we  can 
present  them  with  reliable  statistical  information  on  the  subject. 
Without  statistics  we  can  not  tell  to  what  degree  such  diseases  are 
domesticated  in  a  given  State,  nor  can  we  judge  of  our  success  in 
combating  them  from  year  to  year.  To  this  end,  returns  should  be 
made  quarterly  by  the  district  and  local  veterinary  officials  to  those 
of  the  county,  and  semi-annually  by  the  latter  to  the  State  Inspector- 
General,  who  should  make  an  annual  report  to  the  inspector-general 
at  Washington,  who  in  his  turn  should  prepare  a  condensed  annual 
report  of  the  condition  and  work  done  in  the  whole  country — the 
same  to  be  a  part  of  the  report  of  the  National  Board  of  Health. 
It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  this  work  of  inspection  is  never  to  be 
limited  to  contagious  diseases  of  animals  alone,  but  that  most  espe- 
cial attention  must  be  given  to  the  study  and  observation  of  those 
diseases  and  conditions  which  are  either  known,  or  are  supposed,  to 
exert  harmful  or  dangerous  influences  upon  the  health  of  mankind. 
The  true  veterinarian  is  fully  a.s  much  a  guardian  of  the  public 
health  as  the  medical  hygienist.  The  curing  of  sick  animals  is  by 
far  the  most  insignificant  part  of  his  work.  Prevention  is  the  true 
strength  of  veterinary  science.  In  this  regard  the  veterinarian  is 
of  far  more  importance  to  humanity  than  the  medical  practitioner. 
The  tables  are  exactly  turned  about  in  the  two  branches  of  medi- 
cal science.  The  doctor  is  strongest  in  practice,  the  veterinarian  in 
the  prevention  of  diseases. 

By  the  plan  which  we  have  proposed  for  a  national  veterinary 
police  code  and  organization,  it  is  self-evident  that  the  extension  of 
any  disease  over  the  country,  or  from  one  State  to  another,  can  be 
very  strongly  combated.     In  case  a  contagious  animal  disease — we 

25 


386  THE  MEANS  OF  PREVENTION. 

will  assume  the  rinderpest — breaks  out  at  any  place,  say  Columbus, 
Ohio,  the  law  requires  the  owner,  attendant  quack,  empiric,  or  regular 
practitioner,  to  at  once  notify  the  next  veterinary  official  of  the 
State  of  the  suspicion  or  actual  appearance  of  the  disease.  If  the 
former  is  very  strong,  or  becomes  at  once  confirmed,  he  at  once  no- 
tifies the  inspector-general  of  his  State,  who  at  once  notifies  every 
official  veterinarian  in  the  State,  and  the  inspector-general  at  Wash- 
ington. The  latter  notifies  each  State  general  inspector,  who  in 
his  turn  notifies  the  State  veterinary  officials.  What  is  the  result  ? 
An  absolute  quarantine  of  every  head  of  cattle  in  this  whole  country. 
Not  a  single  one  can  be  moved  without  the  permit  of  an  official 
veterinarian.  All  transported  cattle  are  watched  from  place  of  ship- 
ment to  destination.  Extension,  under  such  circumstances,  is  re- 
duced to  the  lowest  possible  limit.  The  same  is  true  of  every  other 
contagious  animal  disease.  Smuggling  or  remov^al  across  State 
boundaries  of  suspected  or  diseased  animals  becomes  useless,  for 
notification  is  at  once  transmitted  from  the  one  State  to  the  other. 
There  is  no  opposition  between  the  authorities  of  different  States. 
The  laws  are  the  same.  The  officials  belong  to  one  organization. 
They  are  appointed  for  a  term  of  years.  Truly,  every  one  must  see 
that  in  this  case  we  have  unity  in  purpose  and  strength  to  execute  the 
laws.  State  rights  are  respected,  individual  rights  honored,  yet  both 
State  and  individual  receive  the  fullest  amount  of  protection  for 
their  animal  property  which  it  is  in  the  power  of  science  to  bestow. 
I  have  said  that  the  national  veterinary  inspector  should  be  attached 
to  the  N^ational  Board  of  Health,  and  that  the  whole '  veterinary 
sanitary  organization  should  be  a  part  of  a  grand  national  system  of 
preventive  medicine.  We  have  a  National  Board  of  Health.  Oth- 
ers have  expressed  their  ideas  of  its  work,  therefore  it  may  be 
allowed  me  to  close  this  section  of  my  book  with  some  of  my  own, 
crude  as  they  may  appear. 

The  National  Board  of  Health  was  called  into  being  simply  on 
account  of  the  yellow  fever.  Its  work,  uj)  to  the  present  time,  has 
been  chiefly  limited  to  the  study  of  that  disease,  and  in  seeking  for 
means  looking  toward  its  prevention.  This  much-needed  work 
should  be  amply  supported,  and  obstinately  persevered  in,  but  we 
may  be  sure  that  many  years  will  elapse  before  any  marked  success 
will  crown  our  efforts.  Success  will  come,  however,  if  the  Ameri- 
can people  can  keep  their  balance  long  enough  not  to  cry  out  for  a 
false  economy,  which  is  the  last  cry  one  should  hear  in  this  impor- 
tant branch  of  our  Government.  The  work  of  a  National  Board  of 
Health  has,  however,  scarcely  begun  when  it  is  limited  to  yellow 


A   NATIONAL   VETERINARY   POLICE   SYSTEM.  387 

fever.  Such  an  iiistitutiou  must  be  the  focal  stimulus  wliicli  shall 
gradually  cause  the  organization  of  one  grand  national  system  of 
preventive  medicine.  It  nnist  seek  to  incite  reforms  where  they  are 
needed,  and  among  these  none  is  more  important  than  one  stand- 
ard medical  examination  for  the  country,  and  one  similar  course  of 
study  at  every  medical  school  in  the  land.  Xo  good  work  can  ever 
be  done  except  as  the  result  of  organized  effort.  Centralized,  that 
is,  cohcentrated  effort,  is  always  rewarded  by  better  results  than 
isolated,  s|X)nidic  endeavor.  Many  of  our  States  are  still  without 
effective  boards  of  health,  as  is  also  the  case  in  many  large  cities  or 
towns.  In  only  one  State,  Massachusetts,  have  we  anything  like 
State  medical  officers.  In  this  State  we  have  the  "  medical  examin- 
ers "  taking  the  place  of  that  useless  inheritance  from  England,  the 
"  coroner."  In  effective  work  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the 
whole  country  become  subjected  to  one  code  of  sanitary  laws, 
suitable  to  the  general  needs,  while  in  every  State,  county,  city, 
or  town,  such  special  laws  must  be  made,  and  are  in  general,  as 
the  local  needs  demand.  These  special  laws  and  regulations  should 
always  bear  a  proper  relation  to  the  general.  It  is  the  drafting  of 
the  latter  which  will  devolve  upon  the  national  board.  Once  hav- 
ing such  laws  and  regulations,  the  next  thing  is  their  execution. 
To  this  end  competent  sanitary  officials  are  necessary.  These  ap- 
pointments should  never  be  made  until  candidates  have  pa.ssed  a 
special  examination,  to  be  fixed  for  the  purpose  by  the  National 
Board  of  Health  for  the  whole  country — the  examination  to  consist 
in  (piestionings  upon  the  pathology,  etiology,  etc.,  of  the  diseases 
included  among  those  generally  spoken  of  under  the  headings  of 
preventive  medicine.  The  examinations  should  be  made  by  the 
members  of  the  respective  State  boards  of  health.  The  organization 
of  the  sanitary  system  in  eacli  State  should  be  similar  to  that  wliich 
I  have  [)ortrayed  with  regard  to  a  veterinary  organization.  These 
positions  should  be  points  of  ambition  for  our  best  young  men. 
They  should  receive  pay  for  official  work.  In  cases  where  the  ne- 
cessities of  the  public  demanded  their  whole  time  they  should  Ixj 
liberally  paid,  and  open  to  a  pension  in  the  same  manner  as  above 
considered.  We  should  therefore  have  a  National  Board  of  Health 
in  connection  with  State  boards,  which  sliould  be  in  connection  with 
local  boards  and  health  officers.  These  officials  must  be  thoroughly 
educated  in  the  principles  and  practice  of  modern  research,  and  in 
patliological  anatomy  and  necroscopy.  The  professional  members 
of  the  State  boards  of  health  should  be  appointed  by  the  Governor 
from  among  the  most  competent  of  the  sanitary  officers.    They  should 


388  THE   MEANS   OF  PREVEXTIOX. 

all  be  paid,  and  hold  office  until  sixtj  years  of  age,  or  during  activity. 
Those  members  who  are  required  to  devote  their  whole  time  to  the 
service  of  the  State  should  be  pensioned  on  retirement.  The  State 
can  never  afford  to  be  a  "  bummer."  Men  who  can  afford  to  work 
for  honor  alone  are  seldom  fitted  to  serve  the  State  well.  This 
principle  of  working  for  the  State  for  honor  alone,  so  common  in 
certain  positions  in  this  country,  can  not  be  too  strongly  condemned. 
It  is  death  to  young  men,  and  equally  detrimental  to  the  public 
good.  A  State  which  is  too  poor  to  pay  competent  men  for  the 
work  it  requires  of  them  is  too  poor  to  exist.  It  had  better  secede 
out  of  this  Union,  or  be  merged  into  another  which  is  capable  of 
paying  for  work  well  done. 

Boards  of  health  are  too  much  limited  to  gathering  statistics. 
Again,  these  statistics  are  often  too  much  limited  to  those  of  the  so- 
called  infectious  diseases.  The  latter  class  of  statistics  has  a  very 
subordinate  value.  It  matters  but  little  whether  one  thousand  or 
ten  thousand  men  perish  from  a  given  infectious  disease,  so  long  as 
the  cause  is  present,  yet  unknown,  and  prevention  thus  far  impos- 
sible. It  is  far  more  necessary  that  observations  and  experiments 
in  these  two  directions  be  made  than  that  exact  statistics  be  gathered 
annually.  Statistics  as  to  causal  influences,  however,  can  never  be 
too  highly  appreciated.  These  accumulated  statistics  have  one  good 
purpose  :  without  them,  in  this  country,  it  would  be  impossible  to  get 
means  enough  from  the  Legislatures  to  carry  on  the  necessary  studies 
and  experiments  by  which  we  may  in  the  end  hope  to  find  means 
of  prevention.  Boards  of  health  should  always  have  the  necessary 
means  to  carry  on  an  experiment  station,  and  to  amply  reward 
specialists  for  experimental  researches  in  any  desired  direction. 

There  is,  however,  another  form  of  statistics,  the  careful  collec- 
tion of  which  would  send  a  thrill  of  horror  over  the  human  family, 
and  it  is  from  this  form  that  we  may,  in  the  distant  future,  expect 
very  valuable  results.  To  obtain  them  we  need  far  better  practi- 
tioners, much  less  prejudiced  thinkers,  than  we  at  present  have  in 
the  medical  profession. 

I  allude  to  statistics  with  regard  to  the  really  preventable  dis- 
eases of  life ;  the  diseases  due  to  ignorance,  not  only  on  the  part  of 
the  diseased,  but  of  practitioners  as  well.  An  ignorance  of  duty 
with  reference  to  the  latter,  for  the  medical  adviser  who  treats  only 
is  simply  fit  for  confinement  among  idiots.  I  allude  further  to  the 
diseases  due  to  the  ignorance  of  the  people  in  the  employment  of 
quacks,  and  further  to  the  still  more  to  be  condemned  American 
craze,  the  use  of  those  disgi'aces  of  our  civilization,  legalised  patent 


A   NATIONAL   VETEUINAUV   POLICE   SYSTEM.  3S9 

life-dist/'ot/ers,  discoveries  of  the  devil  ur  his  agents^patent  medi- 
cines. 

Another  disease  wliieli  requires  statistical  attention  is  tubercular 
consumption.  It  kills  more  jK'ople  in  ten  years  than  any  invasive 
disease  of  the  present  day  is  likely  to  do.  Our  climate  has  been 
made  to  play  a  much  too  important  part  among  the  causes  of  this 
disease.  Climate,  employment,  etc.,  all  play  the  sufficient  or  pro- 
ducing causes,  but  very  seldom  the  primary  cause.  The  primary 
cause  is  to  be  sought  in  the  senseless  inbreeding  of  weak  lungs  from 
genenition  to  generation  among  human  beings,  until  at  j)res(jnt  tlie 
very  irritation  of  normal  breathing  is  often  sufficient  to  send  a  child 
into  an  early  grave  from  tubercular  consumption.  The  medical 
profession  acknowledge  the  iulluences  of  our  climate.  Perhaps  they 
can  see  the  other  also.  But  truth  is  ever  unpleasant ;  and  to  tell 
parents  that  their  children  dare  not  marry  at  all,  or  dare  not  inter- 
marry— to  tell  young  lovei-s  they  dare  not  marry,  because  they 
Would  condemn  their  children  to  an  early  grave — would  seriously 
interfere  with  one's  yearly  income.  TF/zo  of  the  medical  prof ession 
stands  up  as  a  man  of  truth  and  proclaims  to  th<i  world  that  con- 
sumptives dare  not  marry,  or  that  children  (f  families  with,  such 
tendencies  must  not  intermarry  ?  TV^e  must  outrhreed  this  tendency 
to  weak  lungs  by  sensible  and  exact  marriage,  or  we  shall  find  still 
more  reason  to  condemn  our  climate  than  we  now  have.  AVhy  do 
these  men  study  medicine  \  It  is  certainly  not  to  think,  not  to 
speak,  the  truth.  To  make  a  living,  regardless  of  the  good  of  hu- 
manity. Medical  practice  has  fallen  to  a  business  in  this  country, 
instead  of  being  conducted  as  a  science.  Can  these  men  think  ? 
Can  they  observe  what  every  breeder  of  fine  cattle  has  long  since 
known  \  I  scarcely  believe  it.  Blind  I  blind  I  Education  is  a 
rayth !  Ignorance  only  exists  !  To  think,  the  evidence  of  true 
education  seems  to  be  the  thing  we  nmst  seek  after.  We  may  find 
it  among  the  lost  arts.  Until  then,  humanity  loill  go  on  damning 
its  children,  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  to  a  living  Jiell  of  misery 
and  pam.  There  is  hut  one  cure  for  consumption  ((piacks  to  the 
contrary)  :  Consumptives,  descendants  of  consumptive  fami/ies,  dare 
not  intermarry. 

Syphilis  is  a  disease  of  similar  character.  It  can  scarcely  be 
rooted  out  from  an  organism  when  once  its  terrible  germs  have 
gained  access.  Does  the  medical  profession  do  its  duty  in  this 
regard  ?  Docs  it  tell  young  but  unfortunate  patients?  that  they  dare 
not  marry  ?  "  Marry,  doctor  ?  "  *'  Oh,  yes."  "  Perfectly  cured  ?  " 
"  Oh,  yes."     But  the  child  produced  not  only  brands  the  medical 


390  THE   MEANS   OF   PREYEXTION. 

adviser  as  a  liar,  a  stupid  and  irresponsible  ignoramus,  but  publislies 
the  father's  "  cured  "  condition  (?)  to  the  world.  Statistics  would 
indeed  teach  a  valuable  lesson  with  regard  to  these  inherited  dis- 
eases and  disease  tendencies.  After  these  numerical  statistics  have 
been  gathered,  still  another  form  of  no  secondary  importance  de- 
mands our  attention.  It  is  not  enough  to  know  the  number  of 
deaths  which  occur  in  a  country  from  a  number  of  given  dis- 
eases. "We  do  absolutely  nothing,  except  to  establish  an  annual  per- 
centage with  such  figures.  To  complete  the  work,  it  is  necessary 
that  all  natural  influences  should  be  most  carefully  observed  by  com- 
petent men.  "NYe  must  have  accurate  reports  with  reference  to  the 
condition  of  the  ground-water  in  all  sections  of  the  country,  its  tem- 
perature, and  seek  to  accurately  define  the  relations  of  the  same  to 
typhus  and  typhoid  diseases.  We  must  know  the  influences  exerted 
upon  the  eruption  and  extension  of  diseases  by  the  water-courses 
and  prevailing  winds.  AYe  must  know  what  diseases  prevail  mostly 
or  most  severely  in  the  valleys  and  upon  high  and  exposed  table- 
lands, as  well  as  wooded  districts  or  low  and  marshy  lands.  We 
must  know  accurately  the  influences  exerted  by  changes  of  tempera- 
ture, seasons,  wet  or  dry,  and  the  connection  between  the  diseases 
of  the  different  species  of  the  animal  kingdom.  "When  all  this  is 
done,  our  National  Board  of  Health  should  publish,  once  in  every 
ten  years,  pathological  geographical  maps,  with  reference  to  the 
extension  of  all  forms  of  disease  in  the  United  States ;  not  one  is  to 
be  excepted,  whether  due  to  transmitted  influences,  to  infection,  or 
to  external  influences.  This,  with  the  annual  reports,  in  unison 
with  investigations  at  the  hands  of  competent  experts,  and  the  work 
of  the  veterinary  department,  constitutes,  in  my  mind,  the  work  of 
a  national  organization  for  the  purposes  of  preventive  medicine. 


A  NATIOXAL  VETERIXARY  INSTITUTE. 

In  the  preceding  parts  of  this  work  we  have  endeavored  to  make 
our  readers  individually  appreciate  that  mankind  is  constantly  threat- 
ened with  several  serious  and  in  many  cases  fatal  diseases,  from  con- 
tact with  diseased  animals  in  life,  or  from  the  consumption  of  flesh, 
milk,  or  other  materials  derived  from  them.  "We  have  also  shown 
that  the  prevention  of  these  evils,  as  well  as  the  ravages  of  the  strictly 
contagious  animal  diseases,  can  not  be  attained,  or  hoped  for,  with- 


A  NATIONAL   VETERINARY    INSTITUTE.  391 

out  a  well-organized  system  of  veterinary  jiulice,  and  a  carefully 
drafted  code  of  laws  and  regulations.  It  sh(»uld  be  evident  to  every 
one  that  this  much-desired  prevention,  and  the  collection  of  those 
valuable  statistics,  in  a  trustworthy  manner,  by  which  the  people 
can  alone  determine  as  to  the  extension  which  the  contagious  and 
infectious  animal  diseases  acquire  each  year,  do  not  come  within  the 
province  of  the  medical  practitioner.  AVe  have  shown  that,  in  the 
majority  of  the  States,  no  laws  exist  for  the  suppression  and  preven- 
tion of  contagious  animal  diseases,  and  in  no  State  are  they  what 
they  should  be,  or  at  idl  conformable  to  the  latest  results  of  scientific 
research.  This  work  can  only  be  well  performed  by  the  veterinarian 
who  has  been  thoroughly  schooled  in  the  principles  and  methods 
of  scientific  medicine  at  a  well-regulated  institution.  It  is  the  same 
in  medicine.  The  thirst  for  knowledge  for  itself  is  the  sole  incen- 
tive to  original  research.  Monetary  rewards  are  not  gained  in  the 
medical  laboratory  which  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  physiology  and 
pathology.  The  practitioner  who  is  always  boasting  of  his  cures, 
who  prides  himself  in  a  knowledge  of  the  by-gones,  if  not  too  lazy; 
who  always  treats  the  earnest  endeavors  and  researches  of  some 
brother  practitioner  with  scorn ;  who  echoes  the  popular  voice,  by 
speaking  of  him  as  a  theorist,  "  a  very  learned  man,  but  fails  in 
not  having  had  my  practical  experience,"  is  to  be  invariably  put 
down  as  a  humbug  and  first-class  ignoramus.  The  man  of  expe- 
rience alone  is  always  an  ignorant  man  in  the  light  of  science. 
How  often  do  the  boasted  men  "  of  great  practical  experience " 
fail !  They  sink  into  a  well-deserved  oblivion  before  the  genius  of 
the  first-class  practitioner,  who  unites  in  himself  the  two  elements, 
theory  and  practice,  the  one  inseparable  union  which  shall  endure 
forever.  Scieiitia  est  potentia  ("Science  is  power").  Without 
science,  i.  e.,  without  theory,  where  would  the  world  be  now  ?  Sci- 
ence holds  the  keys  to  the  money-vaults  of  the  world.  She  opens 
to  our  view  the  hidden  treasures  of  the  earth.  She  adapts  to  our 
uses  the  raw  materials  which  she  teaches  us  to  win  from  nature. 
She  has  given  us  all  the  means  of  comfort  and  luxury  which  we 
have ;  but,  greater  than  all  these,  she  is  the  fair  goddess  whose  rules 
and  teachings,  faithfully  applied,  lead  to  health.  Science  alone  can 
discover  the  means  of  prevention — crude  experience,  empiricism, 
never !  The  workers  in  the  many  fields  of  science  have  been  among 
the  noblest  l)encfactor8  of  the  human  race,  and  among  these  none 
have  excelled  those  of  medicine  for  their  untiring  devotion  aiid  self- 
sacrifice.  These  men  constantly  neglect  the  very  laws  which  they 
are  begging  humanity  to  follow ;  no  devotion  is  too  great  to  dampen 


392  THE   MEANS  OF  PEEVENTION. 

their  zeal ;  every  means,  even  to  unnecessary  experiment  upon  them- 
selves, which  have  too  often  led  to  sacrifice  of  hf e,  have  been  donated 
to  the  service  of  humanity.  With  right  France  immortalizes  the 
name  of  her  Bichat,  Germany  her  Yirchow,  England  her  Hunter, 
Holland  her  Boerhaave,  Austria  her  Rokitansky.  With  right  and 
justice,  and  a  grand  appreciation  of  the  value  of  such  men  to  the 
world,  as  well  as  their  native  countries,  do  the  Continental  govern- 
ments support  them  in  the  days  of  their  activity,  and  relieve  their 
minds  from  all  anxiety  for  the  future  of  themselves  and  their  imme- 
diate dependants,  by  properly  pensioning  them  when  the  period  of 
decay  comes  on. 

All  hail,  then,  the  day  when  veterinary  science  shall  find  a  fitting 
place  wherein  to  develop  among  the  people  of  this  country ! 

To  the  purposes  of  prevention  and  suppression  of  the  ravages 
and  extension  of  the  diseases  which  have  been  considered,  it  has 
been  frequently  observed  that  veterinarians  are  necessary.  Having 
portrayed  their  work,  it  becomes  us  to  consider  how  we  can  best 
produce  them.  The  material  is  ready,  the  field  planted.  We  have, 
I  truly  believe,  better  material,  young  men,  to  work  upon  than  any 
other  country  in  the  world.  All  they  are  waiting  for  is  the  means 
by  which  they  can  acquire  a  suitable  education.  It  is  the  duty  of 
the  people  to  supply  these  means.  But,  to  this  end,  there  must  be, 
somewhere  in  the  country,  a  properly  endowed,  organized,  and  regu- 
lated institution  for  the  study  of  veterinary  medicine.  There  are 
several  ways  by  which  veterinary  schools  have  been  established,  but 
only  two  of  these  are  worth  a  moment's  earnest  consideration  ;  still 
there  are  two  others  which  it  becomes  our  duty  to  consider,  in  order 
that  we  may  be  made  well  aware  of  their  utter  fallacy.  The  first 
two  plans,  which  we  will  not  at  present  consider,  are — 1.  State 
schools,  controlled  and  regulated  by  each  State,  to  which  we  will 
oppose  a  national  school,  answering  all  the  purposes  of  the  nation ; 
but,  instead  of  being  controlled  by  the  Government,  regulated  by  a 
board  of  trustees  and  its  teachers,  the  former  to  be  elected  from  a 
national  association,  which  should  be  organized  for  the  purpose. 

There  are  two  plans  which  are  to  be  condemned  and  combated 
as  evils,  the  nature  of  which  the  people  of  this  country  have  not  as 
yet  any  conception  of,  but  of  which  they  must  gradually  learn.  The 
first  of  these  is  an  irregular  number  of  chartered,  uncontrolled,  irre- 
sponsible institutions  in  each  State ;  and  the  second  is  known  as  the 
subscription  plan,  which  may  be  rightly  included  in  the  first,  but 
for  special  reasons  deserves  individual  treatment. 

The  first  of  these — that  is,  one  or  more  chartered,  uncontrolled, 


A   NATIONAL   VETERINARY    INSTITUTE.  393 

and  in  many  instances  irresponsible  seliools  in  each  State — needs  no 
exercise  of  the  imaginative  power  in  order  tluit  we  may  study  it  in 
all  its  bearings.  It  is  more  than  amply  illustrated  by  the  condition 
of  medicine  in  this  country  at  the  present  time.  In  187G  we  had 
tifty-nine  uncontrolled,  chartered  medical  schools  iu  this  country. 
In  some  States  the  executive  powers  were  not  content  with  charter- 
ing one,  but  willingly  increased  the  number  conformably  to  the 
pleasure  of  applicants:  as,  iu  New  York  State,  there  are  seven;  in 
Ohio,  six ;  and  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  one.  But,  not  even 
content  with  thus  disgracing  the  science  of  medicine  to  a  most  mer- 
cenary business,  we  find  in  some  cities  three  or  more  schools,  as  is 
shown  by  the  followiiig  cutting  from  a  daily  paper  : 

"  The  city  of  Chicago  contains  six  medical  schools — allopathic 
and  homceopathic — and,  according  to  the  '  Times,'  they  turn  out 
graduates  with  greater  rapidity,  and  of  poorer  quality,  than  any 
other  medical  colleges  yet  known.  Xo  preliminary  education  is 
absolutely  re<piired  as  a  condition  of  admission.  An  attendance 
upon  two  courses  of  lectures,  each  of  twenty  weeks,  suffices  in  some 
of  them  to  secure  a  di})loma,  under  which  the  holder  is  authorized 
to  begin  practicing  upuu  his  fellow-citizens.  The  '  Times '  further 
alleges  that  in  some  instances  diplonuis  have  been  obtained  for 
money,  or  through  the  personal  influence  of  friends  who  were  on 
good  social  terms  with  the  professors." 

It  is  a  very  singular  phenomenon,  in  a  country  the  people  of 
which  place  so  much  stress  upon  the  value  of  public  schools,  and 
where  the  State  controls  them,  and  requires  every  child  to  have  an 
education,  and  where  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  education  given 
at  schools  of  certain  rank  is  guaranteed  by  the  State,  to  see  all  re- 
sponsibility avoided  by  the  State,  with  reference  to  the  academical 
or  collegiate  education  of  our  youth ;  this  lack  of  responsibility  even 
extends  itself  to  the  medical  schools,  whether  connected  with  col- 
leges or  individual  institutions.  While  no  very  harmful  results, 
other  than  superficialness  and  snobbishness,  have  been  brought  for- 
ward with  reference  to  the  universities  and  colleges  from  this  neglect 
on  the  part  of  the  State,  it  is  quite  the  contrary  with  reference  to 
the  schools  of  medicine.  As  to  the  universities  and  colleges,  it  may 
be  truly  asserted  tliat,  were  they  State  institutions,  strongly  funded, 
and  free  from  the  curse  which  is  making  America  the  laughing- 
stock of  nations — politics  ;  and  were  teachers  appointed  on  their 
merits,  not  on  account  of  their  connections,  science  would  have  been 
much  further  developed  than  it  is  now. 

Some  singular  results  may  be  observed  to  follow  this  neglect  of 


394:  THE   MEANS  OF  PREVENTION. 

its  duties  by  the  State  with  reference  to  the  medical  schools.  If  a 
young  man  is  a  graduate  of  a  certain  high-grade  public  school,  and 
applies  to  a  merchant  for  a  position,  with  his  certificate  of  gradua- 
tion, the  latter,  if  at  all  posted,  is  able  at  once  to  form  an  approxi- 
mate idea  of  the  degree  of  education  the  youth  has  acquired,  and  of 
his  fitness  for  the  position  he  has  to  offer  him.  On  the  contrary,  if 
a  young  graduate  of  a  medical  school  settles  in  one's  neighborhood, 
and  hangs  up  his  sign  as  an  "  M.  D.,"  how  much  do  we  know  ? 
Absolutely  nothing,  save  that  we  may  generally  assume  he  has  a  di- 
ploma. But  until  we  see  it,  until  we  find  out,  not  only  from  what 
city  he  came,  but  frequently  from  which  school  in  said  city,  and 
not  until  we  have  ourselves  investigated  into  the  character  and  re- 
sponsibility of  said  school,  do  we  know  whether  the  "  M.  D."  of  the 
young  man  is  worth  more  than  the  tin  it  is  painted  upon.  The 
State  takes  no  responsibiKty  in  the  matter.  She  is  absolutely  neg- 
lectful of  her  duties.  Many  of  the  fifty-nine  medical  schools  in  this 
country  deserve  no  other  destiny  than  to  be  immediately  closed  by 
law  as  common  nuisances — ^i.  e.,  producers  of  unqualified  vampires, 
destined  to  prey  upon  an  innocent  and  trusting  community.  This 
neglect  of  the  higher  education  on  the  part  of  the  State,  and  leaving 
it  entirely  to  the  charity  and  public  spirit  of  the  community,  is  a 
great  mistake,  and  one  which  tends  largely  to  the  detriment  of  the 
development  of  science  in  this  country.  It  is  one  of  the  greatest 
evils  of  a  popular  form  of  government  that  no  great  improvement 
or  reform  can  ever  take  place  until  the  people  have  first  become  in 
a  measure  educated  up  to  it.  This  retards  all  movements,  unless 
they  are  so  essentially  practical  that  the  results  by  which  the  public 
are  to  be  benefited  "  stare  them  in  the  face."  The  rewards  of  science, 
however,  are  only  developed  slowly,  and  by  the  labor  of  countless 
workers.  In  monarchical  or  parental  forms  of  government  the  above 
is  not  the  case.  As  soon  as  the  government  sees  that  a  certain  thing 
is  necessary  to  the  welfare  of  the  nation,  it  does  it,  irrespective  of  pub- 
lic opinion,  which  is  invariably  slow  to  see  the  reasons  for  changes, 
especially  when  the  benefits  follow  slowly.  With  reference  to  their 
medical  institutions,  there  is  scarcely  a  Continental  country  from 
which  we  could  not  learn  an  immense  deal.  The  governments  are, 
in  this  thing  at  least,  true  to  the  interests  of  the  people,  when  they 
control  the  schools  and  regulate  strictly  the  quality  and  quantity  of 
education  of  each  graduate.  With  us,  as  is  well  known,  the  contrary 
is  the  case — "  the  more  the  merrier,"  seems  to  be  the  motto  of  our 
States  with  reference  to  the  establishment  of  medical  schools ;  and 
imtil  public  opinion  itself  demands  a  change,  we  may  be  sure  none 


A   NATIONAL   VETERINARY    INSTITUTE.  395 

will  take  place  for  years  to  conic,  unless  our  own  poor  endeavors, 
unaided  as  they  have  yet  been,  succeed  in  leading  the  way  to  a  re- 
form which  shall  extend  to  the  medical  schools,  l>y  the  establishment 
of  a  veterinary  institute  upon  ]nn-ely  scientific  principles. 

It  may  be  axiomatically  asserted  that  it  is  as  much  the  duty  of 
the  State  to  protect  its  people  against  incomj)ctently  educated  men 
and  imjwstoi's  in  medicine  as  it  is  to  protect  them  against  frauds  in 
other  dci>artments  of  life.  This  can  only  be  attained  by  the  State's 
regulating  and  controlling  the  entire  system  of  education,  and  the 
terms  of  graduation  of  the  medical  school  or  schools  within  its  terri- 
tory'. "While  most  parents  display  a  creditable  degree  of  anxiety 
with  reference  to  the  education  which  a  son  is  to  ac(piire  when  fit- 
ting for  a  mercantile  position  in  life,  it  is  only  too  true  tliat  many 
parents  look  U])on  a  medical  education  as  a  sort  of  luxury,  and,  ut- 
terly regardless  of  the  welfare  of  their  fellow-men,  desire  their  son 
put  through  the  medical  school  in  the  shortest  time  and  at  the 
least  expense  possible.  While  there  is  a  certain  degree  of  uniform- 
ity in  the  printed  catalogues  issued  by  the  fifty-nine  medical  schools 
in  this  country,  yet  it  is  very  doubtful  if  the  conditions  upon  which 
diplomas  are  conferred  are  held  up  to  by  all  the  schools.  In  fact, 
experience  goes  to  prove  the  latter  to  be  the  case.  In  most  of  them 
the  conditions  necessary  to  obtaining  the  diploma  read  three  years 
of  study,  two  full  courses  (one  year)  at  some  medical  school,  one  of 
which  must  be  at  the  institution  in  question.  In  reality,  we  have 
here  a  demand  for  but  three  sessions'  study  in  a  medical  school.  As 
these  three  sessions  are  supposed  to  extend  over  a  year  and  a  half, 
one  is  somewhat  at  a  loss  to  know  what  the  regulation  three  years' 
study  means.  The  regulations  frequently  say  "  three  years'  study 
with  some  regular  practitioner,"  which,  if  insisted  upon,  would 
make  the  full  term  of  study  four  and  a  lialf  years ;  and,  as  students 
may  graduate  at  twenty-one  years  of  age,  many  students  would  be 
but  sixteen  and  a  half  years  old  when  beginning  the  study  of  medi- 
cine— too  young  by  far  for  most  youths  to  have  actpiircd  that  edu- 
cation and  drillin":  in  the  natural  sciences  bv  which  alone  the  studv 
of  the  professional  branches  can  be  followed  with  any  profit.  The 
"  three  years  with  any  regular  practitioner,"  whether  he  be  of  good 
or  irregular  standing,  may  have  l)ecn  a  necessity  in  the  early  days 
of  our  history,  but  is  to  be  looked  upon  now  a«  a  disgrace  to  any 
civilizecl  nation.  It  is  injurious  to  the  young  man,  injurious  to  the 
people,  degrading  to  the  profession,  and  puts  incumbrances  in  the 
way  of  the  scientific  advancement  of  the  j^rofession,  which  will  only 
be  overcome  with  immense  difficulty,  and  at  the  cost  of  much  ill- 


396  THE   MEAXS   OF  PREVENTION. 

feeling  and  great  self-denial.  It  can  only  succeed  in  building  up  a 
class  of  self-conceited,  scarcely  semi-educated  empirics,  who,  having 
acquired  a  certain  amount  of  practical  experience  in  the  company 
of  Dr.  Old  Fogy,  the  much-overestimated  '-regular  practitioner," 
look  upon  the  school  as  an  uncomfortable  hindrance,  which  keeps 
them  from  jumping  into  a  lucrative  jDractice,  and  which  is  only  to 
be  used  in  order  to  gain  the  legitimizing  "  M.  D."  with  as  little 
study  and  expense  as  possible. 

There  is  not  a  strictly  scientific  medical  school  in  the  United 
States.  There  are  fifty-five  too  many.  The  needs  of  the  country 
demand  about  four  large  and  well-regulated  medical  institutions  ; 
but  as  this  is  and  will  be  impossible,  it  is  necessary  that  we  do  our 
utmost  to  reform  the  existing  institutions.  To  this  end,  the  State 
must  assume  control  of  them,  as  it  does  of  the  public  schools.  The 
corps  of  teachers  should  be  selected  by  public  competition,  and  it 
must  never  be  forgotten  that  not  every  man  who  can  write  well  or 
who  has  distinguished  himself  in  original  research  is  fitted  by  nature 
to  teach.  The  ability  to  logically  and  practically  detail  the  results  of 
the  world's  knowledge  is  the  requisite  to  be  sought  in  a  teacher ;  if 
these  can  be  united  with  great  original  ability,  all  the  better;  but 
at  a  school  there  must  be  teachers  as  well  as  investigators.  There 
should  be  in  each  State  a  board  of  health,  the  technical  members  of 
which  should  also  constitute  the  medical  board  of  examination. 
The  members  of  such  boards,  as  well  as  the  teachers  of  the  medical 
school  and  other  State  officers  in  connection  with  science,  should  be 
well  paid.  It  is  an  American  disgrace  and  misfortune  that  men  of 
great  original  ability  can  seldom  aiiord  to  work  for  the  State.  Too 
many  such  positions  are  filled  by  dilettanti — rich  men's  sons  who 
dabble  in  science,  and  take  such  positions  for  the  honor  of  the 
thing.  Or  else  they  are  men  who,  having  grown  old  and  experi- 
enced (?),  are  thought  especially  suited  for  such  honorable  positions ; 
whereas  the  period  of  combativeness  and  activity  has  passed  away 
with  them.  A  man  is  only  of  use  to  the  world  so  long  as  he  is  com- 
bative. The  same  is  true  of  our  colleges.  Men  of  ability,  but  poor, 
must  seek  a  living  elsewhere,  and  are  obliged  to  turn  their  backs 
upon  the  laboratories  they  would  delight  in,  and  upon  institutions 
they  would  honor,  in  order  to  prepare  for  their  old  age,  while  snob- 
bishness and  mediocrity  too  frequently  fill  the  places  they  should  be 
honored  with.  Hence,  we  seldom  find  men  of  vast  scientific  ability 
filling  the  chairs  of  American  colleges.  At  the  medical  schools  the 
conditions  are  in  general  still  worse.  We  find  many  of  the  teach- 
ers struggling  between  their  duties  to  a  dangerously  sick  or  dying 


A   NATIONAL  VETERINARY    INSTITUTE.  397 

patient  in  one  part  of  the  city,  and  an  impatient  and  neglected 
class  in  the  medical  school  at  another  part.  The  scenes  of  "  hur- 
rying to  and  fro"  arc  often  ridicnlons  in  the  extreme.  It  is  self- 
evident  that  the  students  must  suffer.  Too  many  medical  schools 
seem  only  to  have  been  established  to  give  a  certain  class  of  ambi- 
tioiH  men  a  false  reputation,  and  a  certain  degree  of  imposability 
before  the  people.  Professor  ^Esculapius  AVormwood  is  always 
going  before  the  people  as  a  very  learned  man,  while  in  truth  he  is 
generally  a  most  consummate  humbug,  one  of  his  most  frcfpient 
specialties  being  the  removal  of  parasites,  which,  like  himself,  prey 
upon  the  vitalities  of  his  patients. 

The  publications  in  which  most  of  these  medical  schools  make 
known  their  respective  advantages  are  certainly  as  uncreditable  to 
scientific  institutions  as  is  the  ridiculous  race  for  students  in  which 
nearly  all  the  schools  indulge.  They  are  embellished  with  numer- 
ous striking  woodcuts  of  the  main  buildings,  laboratories,  etc.,  and 
in  more  ways  than  one  resemble  the  publications  issued  by  hotel 
proprietors  at  summer  resorts.  The  promises  and  opportunities  are 
unexceptionable ;  but,  once  having  you  fairly  in  their  grasp,  with 
the  fees  secured,  it  matters  very  little  in  the  one  case  about  the 
intellectual  and  in  the  other  about  the  corporal  food  one  gets. 

As  I  have  previously  said,  the  States  have  not  been  content  with 
chartering  one  medical  school  within  their  respective  limits.  State 
charters  for  medical  schools  seem  to  be  far  more  easy  of  attainment 
than  liquor-licenses  ;  in  fact,  it  is  very  questionable  if  our  inquiries 
as  to  the  character  of  applicants  for  the  latter  are  not  more  strin- 
gent than  those  which  are  made  with  reference  to  those  who  would 
originate  a  school  for  medical  education.  The  law  requires  no  abso- 
lute testimony  of  character  or  ability  on  the  part  of  persons  desiring 
to  establish  schools  for  medical  education.  Our  legislators  never 
ask.  Have  we  not  enough  such  schools  I  They  seem  to  assume  that 
the  more  we  have  the  better,  and  look  upon  them  from  the  same 
stand-point  as  they  do  institutions  for  general  charity. 

Chapter  XXXII,  section  1,  of  the  Massachusetts  General  Stat- 
utes, reads :  "  Seven  or  more  persons  within  this  State,  having  asso- 
ciated themselves  by  agreement  in  writing  for  education,  charitable, 
or  religious  purjioses,  under  any  name  by  them  aasumeil,  and  com- 
plying with  the  provisions  of  this  chapter  [which  say  nothing  as  to 
their  individual  fitness],  shall,  with  their  successors,  be  and  remain 
a  body  politic  and  corporate.''  The  conditions  are  the  same  in 
nearly  all  our  States — at  least,  I  know  of  no  exception  to  the  rule. 
A  friend  writes  me  from  Philadelphia  :  "  As  you  are  writing  upon 


398  THE   MEANS   OF  PREVENTION. 

the  establishment  of  veterinary  schools,  it  may  not  be  inappropriate 
for  me  to  inform  you  that  there  are  two  so-called  '  colleges '  in  this 
city,  which  are  unfortunately  chartered  by  the  State.  The  men 
composing  these  '  colleges '  are  all  quacks  ;  they  do  not  attempt  to 
teach  anything — were  that  possible  for  them — yet  they  sell  diplo- 
mas or  degrees  to  men  who  wish  to  practice.  It  is  said  they  do 
pretend  to  require  a  sort  of  an  examination  before  they  issue  these 
valuable  papers."  ...  In  the  city  of  jS'ew  York  there  are  three 
chartered,  non-regulated  veterinary  schools. 

Let  us  endeavor  to  look  for  a  moment  at  the  results  of  this  purely 
American  system  of  medical  institutions : 

1.  From  the  want  of  uniformity  and  the  lack  of  responsibility 
on  the  part  of  many  institutions,  the  "  M.  D."  of  the  young  graduate 
is  rendered  next  to  worthless  until  we  have  made  inquiries  into  his 
antecedents. 

2.  Most  of  them  being  poorly  endowed  and  in  many  cases  beg- 
garly institutions,  one  may  observe  a  most  disgraceful  rivalry  for 
students,  which  is  borne  witness  to  by  the  business  character  of 
their  catalogues. 

The  entire  reason  for  these  disgraceful  conditions  is  to  be  sought 
in  the  lack  of  appreciation  for  true  science  which  exists  not  only  in 
the  profession,  but  with  the  people  as  well.  The  curse  of  America 
is  her  overestimated  "  practicality."  The  most  unmitigated  of 
humbugs  is  often  spoken  of  as  "  a  man  of  great  practical  ability." 
Superficial  betokens  the  Americanism  of  to-day.  Sterling  integ- 
rity, which  is  said  to  have  been  a  characteristic  of  our  forefathers, 
seems  soon  to  be  destined  to  a  place  among  the  lost  arts.  Fraud 
prevails !  It  is  nourished,  and,  if  successful,  the  stigma  is  soon 
buried  beneath  the  glitter  of  the  externals.  The  American  people 
seem  to  love  fraud.  In  no  other  country,  unless  it  be  England,  can 
disgraceful  quacks  and  humbugs  flourish  in  every  department  of 
life  as  they  do  here.  "  A  free  fight  and  no  favor,"  seems  to  be  the 
motto  governing  our  legislators,  who  apparently  have  entirely  for- 
gotten that  the  people  they  are  supposed  to  represent — which  they 
seldom  do — are  being  consumed  and  plundered  by  these  impostors. 
Humanity,  as  a  whole,  is  still  a  babe  in  "  swaddling-clothes."  It 
still  needs  protection  from  itself.  Only  a  few  individuals  have  as 
yet  been  able  to  stand  alone ;  and  still  fewer  to  furnish  serviceable 
props  for  others.  The  second  cause  of  these  evils,  with  reference 
to  the  medical  schools,  must  be  charged  to  the  State.  "\Ye  have 
too  many.  Education  in  them  has  become  a  business  instead  of  a 
science.     In  no  State  should  there  be  more  than  one  medical  school. 


A  NATIONAL   VETEKINARY   INSTITUTE.  399 

It  is  a  great  misfortune  that  we  can  nut  reduce  the  number  to  four 
or  live  large,  well-founded,  scientifically-founded  sectional  institu- 
tions, under  one  system  of  regulations  for  the  wliole  country.  The 
chartering  of  special  schools  for  tlic  j^roimiigatiou  of  any  special 
doctrine,  as  homceopathy,  or  for  the  education  of  special  classes — 
women — is  to  be  most  vigorously  condemned.  In  the  first  place,  the 
fundament;ds  of  medical  science  are  the  same,  and  if,  ou  graduation, 
a  practitioner  chooses  to  start  off  upon  a  theoretical  side-track,  it 
matters  not  to  the  State.  As  for  special  schools  for  women,  that  is 
another  absurdity.  If  the  women  desire  to  enter  into  the  struirirle 
for  existence,  good :  give  them  a  free  chance ;  but,  when  they  do 
this,  tliey  must  know  that  they  descend  from  the  reverenced  throne 
which  American  women  in  general  sit  upon,  and  that  they  have 
forfeited  all  rights  to  any  special  consideration  as  women.  They 
must  be  ready  to  take  the  bitter  witli  the  sweet,  the  rough  with  the 
polished,  the  profane  and  vulgar  with  the  chaste :  unless  they  are 
willing  to  do  this,  hack  to  their  homesteads  I  The  Tnistees  of  Har- 
vard College  deserve  nothing  1)ut  condemnation  in  refusing  the 
women  admittance  to  their  medical  school.  They  say,  "  Endow 
another  and  a  special  school "  ;  but  they  entirely  fail  to  say  a  word 
about  its  (jualifications  and  restrictions.  They  certainly  know — not 
to  their  benefit,  I  think — that  the  State  will  charter  anything;  but 
they  should  also  know  that  she  as  yet  exercises  no  control  over  the 
chartered  organizations.  Harvard  snobbishness  is  probably  endan- 
gered by  petticoatism ;  else  why  this  fear  i  Who  is  to  protect  the 
people  against  incompetently  educated  graduates?  That  matters 
not,  so  long  as  Harvard  keeps  to  her  exclusiveness.  Let  the  women 
be  educated ;  but,  if  the  legislators  and  women  of  Massachusetts 
have  their  senses  with  them,  let  them  break  down  these  doors  of  ex- 
clusiveness and  enter  Harvard.  The  men  (?)  there  will  be  even 
more  benefited  than  the  women.  It  is  possible  that  a  true  manhood 
might  get  an  opportunity  to  develop,  when  women  have  trimmed 
the  skirts  of  Harvard  exclusiveness. 

The  first  great  step  toward  medical  reform  in  this  country  is  to 
do  away  with  the  superfluous  schools,  by  having  but  one  in  each 
State ;  by  having  them  under  the  control  of  the  State,  represented 
by  its  board  of  health  as  the  examining  body ;  by  introducing  the 
competitive  system  in  the  selection  of  teachers,  and  in  opening  the 
schools  to  free  teaching  l)y  young  aspirants,  from  which  the  com- 
petitors for  the  special  branches  are  to  be  finally  taken — in  fact,  in 
making  these  scientific  institutions,  instead  of  empiric  hot-houses, 
grinding  out  yearly  the  largest  possible  number  of  half -educated, 


400  THE   MEANS   OF  PREVENTION. 

half -drilled  fledglings.  There  should  be  a  delegation  appointed  by 
the  board  of  health  of  each  State,  with  the  consent  of  the  respective 
Governors,  to  determine  upon  a  universal  course  of  study,  to  be 
extended  over  four  years,  and  a  national  or  universal  system  and 
standard  of  examination,  so  that,  other  things  being  equal,  the 
"M.  D."  of  each  school  should  have  a  corresponding  qualitative  and 
quantitative  value.  Should  this  much-to-be-desired  end  prove  im- 
possible of  attainment,  then  there  is  but  one  course  left.  It  will 
then  become  the  bounden  duty  of  each  State  to  jprotect  the  gradu- 
ates of  its  own  school  as  well  as  its  people  from  the  services  of  men 
graduating  from  schools  in  a  neighboring  State,  or  States,  where  the 
education  is  not  recognized  as  equal  to  that  in  the  first-named  State. 
Unless  they  do  this,  all  regulation  of  the  home-school  is  but  non- 
sense. A  law  will  therefore  have  to  be  made,  by  which  graduates 
from  inferior  schools  in  other  States  must  make  the  State  examination 
in  a  given  State,  before  they  can  be  allowed  to  practice  as  "  M.  D.'s," 
although  the  quack  and  empiric  fields  are  still  open  to  them.  No 
graduate  should  be  allowed  to  practice  in  any  State  until  he  has  re- 
ceived a  license  for  the  purpose  from  the  State  Board  of  Health. 
A  careful  record  of  all  licenses  should  be  kept  for  reference. 

The  practice  of  medicine,  or  the  advertising  of  practice,  or  of 
medicines,  under  false  pretenses,  should  be  most  stringently  regu- 
lated by  the  State.  Several  attempts  have  been  made  in  this  direc- 
tion in  different  States,  but  in  only  a  few  have  they  been  at  all  suc- 
cessful. Massachusetts  holds  a  most  unenviable  position  in  this 
regard.  Legislators  labor  under  a  great  mistake  with  reference  to 
the  desires  of  the  medical  profession  on  this  point.  They  assume, 
unjustly,  that  in  some  way  the  profession  desire  to  interfere  with  the 
rights  of  the  individual  to  have  such  medical  attendance  as  he 
chooses  to  select.  While  this  is  not  the  case;  while  the  profession, 
as  represented  by  its  best  men,  has  no  desire  to  institute  a  medical 
monopoly,  it  is  very  questionable  if  the  rights  of  so-called  matured 
persons  can  be  allowed  to  interfere  or  trifle  with  the  health  of  minors 
or  irresponsible  persons  that  the  accidents  of  birth  have  placed  in 
their  charge.  "While  I  may  have  a  certain  right,  under  civil  law,  to 
poison  myself  by  the  use  of  tobacco  or  opium,  I  have  no  right  to 
teach  my  child  the  use  of  such  drugs  ;  in  fact,  the  law  would  pre- 
vent it,  were  outsiders  to  become  acquainted  with  such  a  purpose 
on  my  part.  It  is  the  same  with  the  employment  of  the  empiric  or 
quack.  But  there  is  still  another  side  of  this  question  which  seems 
to  have  entirely  escaped  the  attention  of  legislators.  The  graduate 
of  the  school  acquires  his  right  to  the  title  "  Doctor,"  or  "  M.  D.," 


A   NATION'AL   VETEULVARY    INSTITUTE.  401 

by  hard  labor  and  expense.  He  has,  therefore,  the  riglit  to  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  protection,  but  only  with  reference  to  the  title.  This 
is  all  he  asks.  The  pepple  are,  in  general,  thoughtless  and  trust- 
ing ;  they  scarcely  ever  stop  to  cpiestion  the  right  of  the  displayer 
or  the  advertiser  to  the  title  ''  Doctor,"  or  "  M.  D.''  The  tir>t  is 
much  more  frequently  usurped.  It  is  unquestionably  the  duty 
of  the  State  to  guarantee  to  the  graduated  student  the  exclusive 
use  of  these  titles  ;  and,  also,  to  make  them  evidences  of  real  worth 
to  the  people,  that  tliey  may  then  select  whom  they  please,  by  for- 
bidding the  use  of  them  to  all  other  men  but  graduates  who  prac- 
tice medicine.  This  in  no  way  interferes  with  the  freedom  of  choice 
of  the  individual,  nor  does  it  restrain  the  quack  or  empiric  from 
practicing  the  healing  art ;  but  it  does  reach  the  necessary  end  of 
giving  the  people  the  means  of  distinguishing  the  accredited  man 
from  the  swindler,  which  is  their  right,  and  it  will  strike  a  heavy 
blow  against  fraud  in  medicine.  Forbid,  under  penalty  of  the  law, 
non-graduated  men  the  use  of  the  title  "  Doctor,"  or  "  M.  D.,''  in 
any  way  whatsoever,  either  by  sign,  card,  or  advertisement,  and  we 
at  once  take  away  the  charm  by  which  they  are  alone  enabled  to 
swindle  the  people. 

In  using  the  words  empiric  and  quack,  we  should  always  make  a 
distinction.  Not  every  empiric  is  of  necessity  a  quack,  nor  is  every 
quack  an  empiric.  It  is  the  deportment  of  the  person  which  makes 
him  a  quack.  There  are  empirics  that  have  never  graduated  from 
a  school,  or  even  studied  at  one,  but  whose  conduct  can  well  be 
measured  by  the  strictest  code  of  medical  ethics  ;  such  men  are  not 
and  never  will  be  quacks.  Quacks  are  swindlers,  misrepresenters 
of  facts — promisers  of  things,  such  as  cures,  which  they  know  to  be 
impossible.  While  some  empirics  are  not  quacks,  there  are  hun- 
dreds of  n)en  claiming  to  be  graduates  of  licensed  schools  who  are 
quacks  of  the  blackest  dye.  It  is  impossible  for  the  law  to  reach 
these  scoundrels.  "We  find  them  advertising  cure-alls  in  every  form. 
This  mania  for  specifics  and  curative  compounds  is,  I  am  sorry  to 
say,  gradually  extending  to  members  of  the  "  regular  "  profession. 
Practitioners'  offices  are  becoming  littered  up  with  samjile  bottles  of 

''  Dr. 's  Viburnam  "   and   other  compounds,  which,  although 

not  patented,  are  nothing  else  than  quack  medicines,  being  adver- 
tised in  the  same  manner,  having  on  one  label  the  diseases  it  is  suj>- 
posed  to  be  good  for  and  on  the  other  the  dose.  In  fact,  this  evil  is 
becoming  so  extended,  that  practicing  M.  D.'s,  either  too  lazy  or  too 
ignorant  to  correctly  compile  a  prescription,  now  frequently  write 
"Dr.  's  Compound,"  "one  bottle — take  as  directed."    "What  les- 

26 


402  THE   MEAKS  OF  PREVENTION. 

sons  are  we  to  draw  from  tlie  foregoing  pages  with  reference  to  the 
establishment  of  veterinary  schools  in  this  country  ? 

1.  It  would  be  an  unpardonable  sin  to  .curse  the  people  of  this 
country  with  another  set  of  private,  unregulated,  irresponsible  medi- 
cal institutions. 

2.  Under  such  a  system  of  schools  the  title  "  Veterinary  Sur- 
geon," or  any  other  to  be  selected,  would  be,  as  it  is  now,  worthless^ 
being  assumed  alike  by  graduated  men,  empirics,  and  veritable 
quacks. 

3.  It  neither  protects  the  people,  by  giving  them  a  reliable 
means  by  which  they  can  distinguish  the  approved  man  from  the 
impostor,  nor  does  it  protect  the  honest  and  hard  work  of  the 
school  graduate. 

4.  It  can  never,  until  eternity,  answer  the  manifold  needs  of  the 
country,  or  produce,  what  is  more  needed  than  in  human  medicine, 
really  scientifically  qualified  veterinary  practitioners,  who,  while 
capable  of  attending  to  the  practical  demands  of  the  public,  are  no 
less  capable  of  meeting  the  scientific  requirements  of  the  State,  in 
taking  an  active  part  in  the  study  of  and  prevention  of  those  animal 
diseases  which  carry  misery  and  desolation  to  mankind,  as  well  as 
threaten  their  health  and  life  in  some  cases. 

Equally  to  be  condemned  with  the  above  are  private  veterinary 
schools  supported  hy  subscription.  They  would  not  deserve  any 
additional  consideration  were  it  not  that  this  plan  has  recently  re- 
ceived the  indorsement  of  no  less  an  authority  than  the  Universities 
of  Pennsylvania  and  Harvard. 

In  considering  the  development  of  veterinary  medicine,  and  the 
foundation  of  the  Continental  schools,  we  have  endeavored  to  im- 
press upon  the  reader  the  fact  that  these  institutions  were  estab- 
lished by  the  respective  governments,  and  have  always  been  con- 
trolled by  them,  thereby  guaranteeing,  so  far  as  possible,  the  quality 
of  their  graduates  to  the  people.  The  result  has  been,  that  all  these 
institutions  have  been  steadily  improved,  until  at  the  present  day, 
and  for  some  thirty  years  back,  many  of  them  have  acquired  the 
right  to  be  called  scientific  institutions,  though  veterinary  medi- 
cine has  not,  in  my  opinion,  yet  arrived  at  that  stage  in  which 
it  can  be  called  a  science.  This  remark  requires  an  explanation 
from  me.  In  the  great  veterinary  schools  of  Europe  the  scientific 
method  of  study  and  research  has  been  more  or  less  perfectly  intro- 
duced ;  but  it  has  been  adopted,  almost  wholesale,  from  human 
medicine.  Veterinary  medicine  has  never  yet  produced  a  great 
medical  thinker.     "We  have  not  yet  got  beyond  good   observers. 


A   NATIONAL   VETERINARY    INSTITUTE.  403 

"Wlien  we  shall  have  produced  a  medieal  dictator,  a  Virchow  or  a 
Biehat,  who  will  revolutionize  all  medical  thought,  or  at  least  reform 
it,  it  will  be  time  enough  for  us  to  speak  of  an  individual  veterinary 
science;  and  not  till  then  will  there  he  any  such  thing.  Until  then 
we  shall  be  nothing  more  than  a  parasite  drawing  our  best  nourish- 
ment from  human  medicine — although,  at  present,  we  are  making 
brave  etlorts  to  stand  on  our  own  feet. 

Another  fact,  which  is  well  worthy  the  attention  of  the  citizens 
of  the  most  "  practical  "  land  in  the  world,  is — }wt  one  of  these  Con- 
tinentiil  schooh  j)af/it  hi  the  American  sense;  i.e.,  they  yield  no 
direct  dividends.  AVe  have  seen  that  the  Berlin  school  exceeded  its 
income,  in  1878-'79,  by  some  $16,600.  But,  while  yielding  no  di- 
rect returns  in  money,  their  indirect  returns  have  benefited  their 
respective  countries  and  the  world  at  large  to  such  a  degree  that 
we  can  not  estimate  it  in  dollars  and  cents.  To  the  teachere  at  these 
Continental  schools  do  the  veterinarians  of  Britain  and  America  owe 
the  greater  part  of  the  material  of  which  their  text-books  are  com- 
posed. To  whom  do  we  owe  the  greater  part  of  our  knowledge 
with  reference  to  the  contagious  and  infectious  animal  pests  ?  To 
whom  but  Continental  veterinarians  !  The  names  of  Ilering,  Ilert- 
wig,  Ilaubner,  Roell,  Bruckm tiller,  Chauveau,  Reynal,  Bouley,  Col- 
lin, Leisering,  AVehenkel,  Schuetz,  Feser,  and  many  others,  are  fast 
becoming  as  well  known  to  English-speaking  people,  thanks  to  the 
eflforts  of  Mr.  Fleming,  as  they  are  to  those  of  the  Continent. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  us,  as  American  citizens,  to  in- 
quire why  it  is  thdt  this  valuable  i)iformation  has  been  gained  by 
Continental  veterinarians,  to  the  exclusion  of  those  of  Britain.  The 
answer  is  simple,  and  one  which  it  is  the  duty  of  every  American 
to  study  earnestly. 

These  schools  are  so  established,  and  the  teachers  so  carefully 
selected,  and  their  present  and  future  xoelfarc  so  iceJl  carrdfor  {for 
they  are  moderately  paid  duriny  active  life,  and  liberally  pensioned 
ichen  the  period  of  decay  comes  on),  that  they  can  give  their  entire  en- 
ergii's  to  the  prop'r  instruction  of  students  and  to  Hcifntifi*'  research. 

These  grand  results  can  never  be  hoped  for  in  countries  where 
there  arc  only  to  be  found  jirivate,  uncontrolled,  and  irresponsible 
schools — in  proof  of  which  we  have  already  noticed  the  nu'dical 
schools  of  this  country,  and  have  yet  to  consider  the  veterinary 
school  at  London,  the  representative  one  of  Britain,  on  the  sub- 
scription principle. 

In  sketching  briefly  the  history  of  some  of  the  principal  veteri- 
nary schools  of  Europe,  it  must  have  been  noticed  that  we  omitted 


404  THE   MEANS   OF  PKEVENTION. 

to  speak  of  those  of  Britain.  We  neglected  them  for  two  reasons  i 
first,  because  the  London  school,  which  we  select  as  the  best  repre- 
sentative, has  never  yet  deserved  to  be  classed  with  those  of  the 
Continent ;  and,  secondly,  because  it  has  been  especially  quoted  as  a 
favorable  example  of  the  "  subscription  plan "  for  the  support  of 
such  schools. 

In  Britain  we  find  directly  opposite  conditions  to  those  of  the 
Continent.  Here  we  find  the  Government  strangely  blind  to  the 
interests  and  welfare  of  the  people.  America,  the  child,  nobly  fol- 
lows the  ignoble  example  of  the  mother.  Britain  has  allowed  her 
noted  and  valuable  flocks  and  herds  to  be  repeatedly  decimated  by 
pests  without  taking  a  single  step  to  educate  properly  qualified  vet- 
erinarians. Here  we  find  no  state  responsibility ;  no  state  regulating 
the  standard  of  education  at  the  schools  ;  no  critical  selection  of 
teachers  ;  no  contribution  to  their  support,  by  means  of  which  the 
discovery  and  improvement  of  methods  for  checking  and  preventing 
the  ravages  of  animal  pests  may  be  hoped  for. 

Being  myself  so  bitter  an  opponent  of  both  private  and  even 
state  schools  for  the  education  of  veterinarians,  it  may  appear  fairer 
for  me  to  let  a  less  partial  judge  speak  for  me  on  these  matters. 

Mr.  George  Fleming  says :  *  "It  was  not,  however,  until  1792 
that  England  had  a  veterinary  school  [established  by  Saint-Bell,  a 
Frenchman],  but  this  was  of  a  private  and  speculative  character ; 
deriving  no  benefit  from  the  state  [and  conferring  none  upon  it],  but 
allowed  to  push  its  own  way  from  the  fluctuating  support  or  patron- 
age of  private  subscribers  and  the  fees  of  students."  This  school 
succeeds,  at  present,  in  the  American  sense — it  pays.  The  director 
and  some  of  the  leading  teachers — they  call  themselves  professors, 
without  ever  having  done  anything  worthy  of  the  name — enjoy  fat 
salaries,  in  return  for  which  they  energetically  oppose  every  sugges- 
tion for  improvements  which  could  only  be  to  the  advantage  of  the 
Government  and  the  people. 

It  is  probably  unknown  to  most  of  the  readers  of  this  book  that 
certain  representative  gentlemen  of  Pennsylvania,  or,  more  correctly 
expressed,  PhiladeljDhia,  as  well  as  the  authorities  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity in  Massachusetts,  have  lately  displayed  quite  an  active  zeal 
in  the  cause  of  veterinary  medicine.  It  would  have  been  better  for 
them,  better  for  their  States,  inflnitely  better  for  the  whole  country, 
had  they  taken  greater  care  to  acquaint  themselves  with  the  history 
of  veterinary  medicine  and  its  results  in  other  countries  than  Eng- 
land, before  giving  to  the  public  "  An  Appeal  to  the  Citizens  of 

*  "Animal  Plagues,''  p.  1Y6. 


A  NATIONAL   VETERINARY   INSTITUTE.  405 

Pennsylvania  for  the  Foundation  of  a  Yeterinaiy  Department  in 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania"  (Philadelphia,  1S70).*  The  "Ap- 
peal" is  issued  by  the  "Pennsylvania  Society  for  the  Prevention 
of  Cruelty  to  Animals."     It  begins  thus : 

"  To  the  Citizens  of  Pennsylvania. 

"By  resolution  of  the  Board  of  ^Manapjers  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals,  I  have  been  re- 
quested to  call  your  attention  to  the  pressing  need  there  is,  at  the 
present  time,  for  some  well-organized  system  of  teaching  veterinary 
medicine  and  surgery  to  those  who  are  willing  and  anxious  to  avail 
themselves  of  such  instruction.  There  is  no  veterinary  college  in 
active  operation  in  this  State  [and  there  is  absolutely  no  call  for 
one ;  in  fact,  the  teachings  of  the  history  of  veterinary  medicine  em- 
phatically forbid  it,  as  I  shall  presently  show. — B.]  In  New  York 
State  and  elsewhere  [where  ?]  much  attention  is  being  given  [the 
State  of  Xew  York/»tv  se  gives  none]  to  this  subject,  and  the  veteri- 
nary practice  of  medicine  is  taught  in  some  colleges  [which  produce 
a  cliiss  of  semi-educated  wolves,  called  empirics].  During  January, 
1ST8,  the  Trustees  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  passed  resolu- 
tions looking  toward  the  establishment  of  a  veterinary  department 
as  soon  as  money  could  be  obtained  to  defmy  the  expense.  The 
Pennsylvania  Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals  has 
made  a  study  [a  very  limited  one]  of  the  methods  of  effecting  some 
organization  to  bring  about  so  desirable  an  end,  and  has  held  com- 
munication with  a  committee  appointed  by  the  trustees  of  the  uni- 
versity having  charge  of  this  branch  of  science. 

"  The  Hon.  John  Welsh,  our  minister  at  the  court  of  St.  James, 
writes  from  London  under  date  of  February  26,  1S70,  to  Dr.  Will- 
iam Pepper,  of  this  city :  '  At  this  moment,  the  importance  of  well- 
instnicted  men  in  this  [veterinary]  branch  of  medical  science  is  par- 
ticularly prominent,  for  the  opinions  of  the  Privy  Council  in  regard 
to  the  American  live-cattle  trade  are  entirely  controlled  by  them. 
The  diseases  of  animals  are  becoming  of  great  interest  to  the  pub- 
lic, and  for  some  years  past  the  efforts  of  the  English  Government 
have  been  directed  toward  'stamping  out' rinderpest,  pleuro-pneu- 
nionia,  and  other  contagious  diseases  among  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine. 
[With  but  very  limited  success,  as  can  easily  be  seen  by  studying  the 
history  of  these  efforta,  and  reading  the  correspondence  and  edito- 
rials in  the  "  Yctcrinarj'  Jounial  "  of  London,     There  is  little  better 

*  The  criticL'sms  which  arc  hero  made  are  equally  applicable  to  the  attempt  of  Har-  ^ 
Tard  Unirersitj  to  establish  the  same  kind  of  a  humbug  school  at  Boston. 


406  THE   MEANS   OF  PREVENTION. 

organized  effort  in  this  direction  in  England  than  in  this  country. 
Glanders  runs  free  over  the  land,  and  quacks  treat  it  on  all  sides  as 
thej  do  here,  openly  defying  whatever  law  may  exist  against  it. — B.] 
At  this  time  there  seems  to  be  great  probability  that  the  live-cattle 
trade  with  the  United  States  will  be  suspended,  because  one  cargo 
of  oxen  which  landed  here  about  a  month  ago  had  thirteen  cases  of 
pleuro-pneumonia,  although  some  eighty  thousand  were  brought 
here  before,  and  some  three  thousand  since,  in  good  health.' "  The 
"  Appeal "  goes  on,  saying,  "  The  offer  made  by  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  should  not  be  permitted  to  fail  for  want  of  means  to 
carry  out  its  wise  and  humane  project." 

Then  follows  the  plan  proposed  whereby  to  raise  the  necessary 
funds,  which  is  fraught  with  still  greater  danger  to  the  future  of 
American  veterinary  science  than  even  State  veterinary  schools.  In 
fact,  the  gentlemen  issuing  this  "  Appeal "  know  so  little  about  the 
subject  upon  which  they  have  written,  that  I  must  seriously  warn 
every  public-spirited  American  against  being  influenced  by  them. 
They  have  become  filled  with  a  grand  idea,  and  then,  with  most  in- 
complete preparation,  have,  as  the  Germans  would  say,  "  let  loose  " 
upon  it : 

"  In  order  that  the  burden  of  this  project  may  fall  as  lightly  as 
possible  on  the  charitable-minded  citizens  of  this  Commonwealth,  a 
plan  has  been  agreed  upon  [a  poorer  could  not  have  been  selected] 
whereby  each  contributor  may  receive  an  ample  equivalent  for  the 
money  he  will  invest  in  this  laudable  undertaking.  [Where  the 
burden  upon  the  charitable-minded  citizens  is  then  to  come  in,  I,  for 
one,  fail  to  see.  Self-interest,  not  patriotism,  not  love  of  animals, 
not  interest  in  the  development  of  science,  and  an  honest  pride  in 
the  rejputation  of  one's  country  in  this  regard,  is  made  the  basis  of 
this  '  Appeal.'  ]  It  is  proposed  to  establish  a  rule  such  as  is  in  force 
in  connection  with  the  Royal  Veterinary  College  of  London  [a 
school  which  has  done  nothing  for  students  or  for  the  advancement 
of  veterinary  science  in  England,  but,  like  'a  dog  in  the  manger,' 
has  opposed  every  attempt  at  progress,  as  I  shall  sufficiently  demon- 
strate from  the  most  trustworthy  English  authority]. 

"  Each  subscriber  of  one  hundred  dollars  is  to  be  known  as  a 
life-subscriber,  and  is,  in  return  for  his  subscription,  to  be  entitled 
to  certain  advantages.  Thus :  he  is  entitled  to  accommodation  in 
the  infirmary  so  far  as  space  will  permit,  and  in  preference  to  non- 
subscribers  [who,  being  of  the  poorer  classes,  are  to  be  excluded, 
and,  as  their  animals  also  offer  much  better  opportunities  for  the 
clinical  study  of  the  student,  the  latter  is  to  suffer,  as  he  does  in 


A  NATIONAL  VETERINARY   INSTITUTE.  407 

London,  for  the  benefit  of  the  '  charitably-minded  '  owner  of  fine 
Ijorses,  who  finds  it  as  cheap,  or  cheaper,  to  send  a  horse  '  a  little 
off'  to  the  school  for  a  week  or  so,  than  to  keep  it  at  home],  for 
snch  animals,  his  own  proj)erty  [an  occasional  horse  belonging  to  a 
friend  will  not  be  objected  to,  the  professors  are  so  accommodating ; 
and  if  they  are  not,  tliey  will  not  know  it],  as  may  need  medical  or 
surgical  treatment,  at  a  price  to  be  fixed,  closely  approximating  the 
actual  cost  of  feed  and  care.  He  may  also  demand  free  examina- 
tion of  ten  horses  or  mules  each  year,  as  to  soundness,  with  a  view 
to  purchase.  lie  can  also  secure  free  advice  in  case  of  animals 
brought  to  the  infirmary,  but  which  he  proposes  to  keep  in  his  own 
stables  or  kennels.  Rules  and  regulations  looking  toward  the  pro- 
tection of  the  university  and  subscribers  will  be  made,  to  prevent 
abuse  of  these  privileges,  and  firms  will  be  permitted  to  register  as 
subscribers  on  the  condition  of  one  member  only  being  named  to 
act  as  the  representative  of  the  firm,  in  its  correspondence  with  the 
authorities  of  the  veterinary  department." 

The  worthy  President  of  the  P.  C.  A.  Society  must  have  had 
some  adviser  more  interested  in  becoming  a  "professor"  than  in  the 
future  of  his  profession,  or  the  welfare  of  his  brother  practitioners, 
when  he  penned  the  above  lines.  It  is  with  extreme  regret  that  I 
feel  myself,  as  a  devoted  servant  to  my  countrymen,  obliged  to  most 
earnestly  oppose  the  above  "  appeal  and  plan  "  in  its  most  essential 
parts.  It  contains  many  words  of  wisdom  and  tnitli,  and  is  deserv- 
ing the  earnest  study  of  every  patriotic  American  ;  but  the  above 
plan,  if  carried  out,  would  lead  to  the  establishment  of  a  school  run 
entirely  in  the  interests  of  a  select  number  of  subscribers,  opposed  to 
those  investigations  by  which  science  is  alone  advanced,  conserva- 
tive in  the  worst  form,  opposing  always  the  interests  of  its  own 
graduates  by  keeping  up  a  constant  opposition  in  practice  which  the 
private  practitioner  is  unable  to  compete  with. 

The  "  Appeal "  is  made  nominally  "  to  the  citizens  of  Pennsylvar 
nia,"  but  it  will  virtually  result,  if  at  all  successful,  in  an  "  a})peal" 
to  those  persons  who  alone  are  by  the  "  plan  "  to  derive  the  benefits, 
viz.,  the  well-to-do  and  wealthy  horse-owners  and  large  firms  of 
Philadelphia  alone. 

What  interests  have  the  citizens  of  Pennsylvania  or  Massachu- 
setts in  an  institution,  the  direct  benefits  of  which  are  only  accessi- 
ble to  the  residents  of  Philadelphia  or  Boston,  or  their  immediate 
vicinity  ?  I  could  fill  a  small  book  with  the  testimonies  of  British 
veterinarians  of  unquestioned  reputation  with  regard  to  the  futility 
and  in  juriousness  of  the  above  plan,  and  the  injury  which  the  quoted 


408  THE   MEANS   OF  PREVENTION. 

London  school  lias  been  to  the  British  veterinary  profession,  but  will 
limit  myself  to  some  remarks  from  the  most  eminent  veterinarian  of 
England.  My  esteemed  friend  and  colleague,  Mr.  George  Fleming, 
expresses  himself  in  the  "  Veterinary  Journal,"  London,  in  an 
editorial  in  the  November  number  for  1879,  vol.  ix,  p.  318,  as  fol- 
lows: 

"  Our  readers  will  have  observed  that  for  some  months  an  agi- 
tation has  been  going  on  among  the  members  of  the  veterinary  pro- 
fession, chiefly  metropolitan  practitioners,  with  reference  to  the  un- 
fair competition  maintained  toward  them  hy  the  Royal  Veterinary 
College  {London)  known  as  the  '  subscription  system.^  As  is  well 
known,  and  as  so  many  veterinary  surgeons  find  to  their  cost,  that 
school  advertises  that  for  two  guineas  a  year  it  will  examine  twenty 
horses  for  soundness,  give  advice  with  regard  to  an  unlimited  num- 
ber, receive  into  the  school-hospital  and  treat  sick  horses,  as  well  as 
sell  medicine  at  cost  price,  shoe  horses  for  a  smaller  sum  than  the 
ordinary  farrier  can,  etc.,  while  for  five  guineas  per  annum  an  in- 
definite number  of  horses  will  be  examined,  and  all  other  privileges 
guaranteed.  In  fact,  it  offers  to  do  what  no  practitioner  could  afford 
to  do,  and  undersells  its  own  students  to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  not 
only  impossible  for  them  to  compete  with  the  cheap  establishment, 
but  the  bread  is  actually  taken  from  their  mouths  by  this  so-called 
Alma  Mater  of  theirs.  It  has  been  said  by  some  political  historian 
that  the  French  Revolutions  eat  up  their  own  children.  The  London 
Veterinary  School  does  this,  and  more ;  for  it  first  charges  them 
heavy  fees  for  teaching,  then  starves  and  swallows  them.  The  sys- 
tem can  certainly  boast  of  a  long  history.  The  school  was  com- 
menced as  a  subscription  establishment  by  an  obscure  agricultural 
society,  nearly  ninety  years  ago  ;  but  then  it  only  had  ignorant  and 
illiterate  farriers  to  compete  with,  and  two  guineas  in  those  days 
were  very  much  more  than  they  are  now. 

"  Had  the  school  never  heen  hegun  on  this  system,  there  can  he  no 
doiibt  that  later  it  must  have  heen  established  by  the  country  for  the 
benefit  of  the  country.  In  this  case  veterinary  medicine  would  have 
all  along  stood  in  a  very  different  'position  to  what  it  has  done  and 
does  now,  and  millions  of  pounds  would  probably  have  been  saved. 
The  '  subscription  system '  [proposed  at  Philadelphia]  has  undoubt- 
edly proved  a  most  serious  drawback  to  veterinary  science  iti  Eng- 
land, as  history  proves.  The  school  has  done  little  if  anything  to 
promote  that  science  /  it  has  never  produced  a  scientific  teacher,  and 
never  will  on  its  present  footing  /  its  teachers  have  been  little  more 
than  practitioners,  whose  principal  functions  were  to  '  doctor '  sub- 


A   NATIONAL   VETERINARY   INSTITUTE.  409 

scribers^  horses,  or  to  attend  to  suhscribers*  interests  ;  the  students 
icho  entered  the  school  have  suffered  all  along  from  tlielr  and  sub- 
scribers^ infert'sts  clashing^  and  of  clinical  instruction  there  has  been 
none  icorthy  of  the  name,  as  the  subscrif)ers''  horses  could  not  be 
made  available,  and  no  others  were  admitted  loithin  the  gates :  nei- 
ther in  the  form  of  textbooks,  nor  in  other  ways,  has  the  school  bene- 
fted  the  jynfession,  Ayiy  its  kxistence  as  a  scientific  institution 

IS  IGNORED  BV  OTHER  COUNTRIES. 

"  The  teachers,  to  exist,  have  been  compelled,  it  would  appear,  to 
practice  their  profession  beyond  the  ■walls  of  the  school,  and  thus 
neglect  the  students,  who  seem  to  be  only  a  secondary  consideration 
in  the  speculation,  and  are  chiefly  valued  as  contributors  of  fees. 

"  A  desire  to  get  hold  of  money  has  been  the  bane  of  the  school^ 
as  it  has  been  its  chief  aim  /  hence  the  degrading  '  subscription 
system,''  and  the  determination  to  continue  and  extend  it,  no  mat- 
ter icho  suffers,  whether  it  deprives  the  veterinary  surgeon  or  the 
blacksmith  of  their  means  of  livelihood.  [The  universities  of  Har- 
vard and  Pennsylvania  would  plant  this  British  parasite  on  our 
shores,  and,  if  the  thing  '  paid,'  numerous  other  associations  of 
less  responsibility  and  respectability  would  be  sure  '  to  follow 
suit  and  tnimp,'  so  easy  is  it  in  this  country  for  everything  and 
everybody  to  get  a  '  charter.']  Surely  the  noblemen  and  gentle- 
men who  lend  their  names  and  patronage  to  these  schools  are 
not  aware  of  the  fact  that  it  is  not  a  scientific  i?istitution,  nor 
yet  a  college,  but  merely  and  mainly  a  great  co-operative  horse- 
doctoring  and  horseshoeing  concern,  devised  to  benefit  wealthy  sub- 
scribers, having  nothing  to  do  with  the  introduction  of  humane  or 
improved  methods  of  treating  diseases  or  accidents,  and  doing  its 
business  on  shamefully  cheap  principles !  [Certainly  the  trustees 
of  the  universities  mentioned  must  have  been  most  lamentably  de- 
ceived or  wofully  ignorant  when  they  consented  to  the  adoption  of 
the  subscription  plan.] 

"We  may  be  told  that  the  '  subscription  system  '  is  necessary  to 
the  existence  of  the  establishment,  and  that  without  it  it  must  per- 
ish of  inanition.  If  such  a  statement  is  correct — and  we  do  not  deny 
its  correctness — then  it  reveals  a  very  discreditable  state  of  affaii-s. 
No  other  veterinary  school  in  these  islands  re(|uircs  to  resort  to  such 
ignoble  stratagem  to  live ;  no  medical  school  does  or  dares  to  under- 
sell practicing  physicians  or  surgeons  ;  in  fact,  th'  London  Veterinary 
College  is  the  only  medical  or  veterinary  school  in  Europe  which, 
like  a  huge  parasite,  lives  and  grows  at  their  expense,  past  and  present. 

"  Not  only  does  the  subscription  system  most  seriously  injure  the 


410  THE   MEANS   OF  PREVENTION. 

practice  of  the  metropolitan  practitioner,  it  also  affects  the  provincial 
veterinary  surgeon,  as  subscribers  are  all  over  the  country,  and  avail 
themselves  of  the  degradingly  cheap  services  offered  by  the  school. 

"  It  is  impossible  for  any  one  who  cares  for  the  reputation  and 
advancement  of  veterinary  medicine  in  this  country,  and  the  de- 
served prosperity  of  its  practitioners,  not  to  sympathize  with  the 
movement  which  has  been  begun,  even  at  this  late  period. 

"  The  cheap  suhscription  system  has  heen  the  curse  of  our  science^ 
o/ad  its  malignant  influence  can  he  traced  through  long  years  and  in 
many  directions.  It  is  unprofessional,  in  every  sense  of  the  term, 
is  derogatory  and  damaging  to  veterinary  medicine,  most  injurious 
to  metropolitan  and  suburban  practitioners — its  own  alumni — in 
every  way  disadvantageous  to  the  students,  and  a  discredit  to  the 
governors  of  the  school  and  the  country.  Had  the  profession  not 
been  for  so  many  years  blind  to  its  own  best  interest,  surely  the 
action  [for  reform]  now  commenced  would  have  been  begun  long 
ago." 

"When  the  above  was  written  I  did  not  know  that  a  striking  ex- 
ample of  the  injurious  effects  of  this  suhscrijytion  plan  would  be  so 
soon  offered  to  public  consideration.  The  following  letter  needs  no 
further  comments  on  my  part : 

Harvard  Veterinary  School. — An  Open  Letter. 

To  the  President  and  Overseers  of  Harvard  College. 

Gentlemen  :  A  question  which  has  been  and  still  is  troubling 
the  minds  of  the  thinking  members  of  the  veterinary  profession  is, 
"  What  purpose  had  Harvard  in  estallishing  a  Veterinary  De-part- 
ment  in  connection  with  the  Medical  School  ?  "  Was  it  to  educate 
young  men  to  become  creditable  members  of  a  profession  which 
should  rank  as  high  as  human  medicine  in  the  public  mind,  or  was 
it  to  run  an  animal  hospital  on  a  strictly  business  basis  ? 

The  first  sermon  that  I  have  any  remembrance  of  listening  to 
was  by  that  most  eminent  preacher.  Dr.  Bartol.  I  probably  remem- 
ber it  on  account  of  the  striking  nature  of  the  text,  which  was, 
"  'Twon't  pay."  Now,  sermonizing  is  not  exactly  my  forte  ;  never- 
theless, I  am  going  to  try  and  show  you  that  you  have  started  upon 
a  course  that  "  won't  pay  "  in  the  establishment  of  your  veterinary 
school. 

"  'Twon't  pay  "  for  you  as  the  head  of  the  leading  educational 
institution  of  our  State  to  establish  any  new  branch  of  education 
upon  anything  but  the  best  possible  foundation.  You  would  not 
be  American  if  you  endeavored  to  open  this  department  on  any- 


A  NATIONAL   VETERINARY   INSTITUTE.  411 

thing  but  a  paying  basis.  Unless  a  thing  paijs  its  expenses,  it  is  an 
utterly  unpractical  venture  in  this  land  of  eminent  practicality. 

But  medical  schools  and  business  enterprises  can  not  be  looked 
upon  from  the  same  stand-point.  A  business  enterprise  is  a  private 
affair,  undertaken  to  make  money ;  if  it  "  won't  pay,"  it  goes  under. 
A  medical  school  is  an  educational  affair ;  whether  it  "pays"  in 
money  or  not  is  a  matter  of  no  importance  whatever.  It  is  a  public 
servant,  just  the  same  as  the  public  schools.  The  only  dividend  the 
public  can  expect  to  receive  is  that  the  graduates  of  the  school  are 
thoroughly  educated  in  both  the  scientific  and  practical  parts  of  their 
profession.  Naturally,  it  remains  for  you,  as  the  founders  of  this 
movement,  to  endeavor  to  find  some  means  by  which  you  can  make 
such  an  institution  pay  its  way. 

To  do  this  you  have  adopted  the  London  plan  of  "  subscrip- 
tions," by  which,  for  a  minimum  sum  of  money  per  year,  you  prom- 
ise to  render  services  to  each  subscriber  which  no  private  practitioner 
could  afford  to  guarantee  to  do  for  three  times  the  amount.  In 
adopting  this  subscription  plan  you  have  yet  to  learn  that  you  can 
not,  as  overseers  of  a  great  public  institution,  afford  to  do  what  a 
private  speculative  affair  like  the  London  School  has  done,  though 
not  without  the  greatest  opposition  from  its  own  graduates. 

Gentlemen,  you  have  yet  to  know  that  it  "  won't  pay  "  for  you 
to  draw  down  upon  your  most  worthy  and  necessary  undertaking 
the  opposition  and  ill  will,  not  only  of  the  few  educated  members 
of  the  veterinary  profession  of  the  present  day,  but  of  all  time,  in- 
cluding every  man  that  graduates  from  your  school. 

The  time  will  surely  come  when  other  members  of  the  profession 
will  openly  oppose  the  plan  upon  which  you  are  conducting  this 
venture.  Gentlemen,  your  advisers  were  bad.  They  knew  no  more 
about  the  establishment  of  a  veterinary  school  than  an  iron-foundry, 
perhaps  not  half  as  much. 

They  had  but  one  purpose  in  view,  and  that  was  self,  not  Har- 
vard College  or  the  State.  I  look  upon  this  "  subscrij)tion  plan," 
as  carried  out  by  you,  as  disgraceful  to  Harvard  College,  and  as 
bound  to  exert  a  most  baneful  influence,  by  its  example,  on  the 
future  of  American  veterinar}*  medicine. 

I  have  said  your  advisers  were  not  the  men  they  should  be,  and 
I  now  tell  you  that  it  "  won't  pay  "  to  let  them  conduct  the  school 
in  the  manner  thev  arc  now  doinrr. 

What  are  you  trying  to  give  us,  gentlemen — a  medical  school  for 
the  best  possible  education  of  veterinarians,  or  an  institution  for  the 
development  of   English  "  flunkeyism "  on  Ameriwin  soil  ?     One 


412  THE   MEAJS'S  OF  PREVENTION. 

would  think  tlie  latter !  The  people  can  rightly  hold  you  responsi- 
ble for  the  pubKc  acts  of  your  subordinates. 

In  the  Boston  *'  Sunday  Globe,"  of  some  two  weeks  since,  ap- 
peared an  article  upon  your  Veterinary  Department,  which  I  make 
bold  to  assert  was  a  disgrace  to  Harvard  College,  and  outdoes  the 
advertisements  of  any  of  the  noted  medical  humbugs  and  fraudu- 
lent hospitals  of  quacks  in  Boston  or  any  other  city. 

This  advertisement  reads  thus : 

SICK   HORSES'   PARADISE. 

THE    HARVARD    USITERSITT    VETERINARY    HOSPITAL. 

Accommodations  for  Patients  in  the  New  Building  on  Village  Street. 
Pronounced  Success  of  the  Latest  Harvard  Enterprise. 

"  '  Our  borders  is  wery  strict  'ere,  sir,  not  to  hadmit  any  one  vith- 
out  permission.     'Fraid  you'll  'ave  to  wait  for  the  doctor,  sir.' 

"  Thus  spoke  one  of  the  grooms  at  the  Harvard  University  Vet- 
erinary Hospital  to  a  '  Globe '  reporter  yesterday,  when  he  rang  at 
the  office-door. 

"  '  Both  of  the  doctors  be  avay  just  now,  sir,  but  we  hexpects 
them  back  directly ' — and  at  that  moment  Dr.  Charles  P.  Lyman, 
F.  E..  C.  V.  S.,  the  professor  in  veterinary  medicine  and  chief  sur- 
geon of  the  hospital,  drove  up  and  alighted  from  his  English  dog- 
cart, while  his  English  driver  conducted  his  English  horse  into  the 
stable.  Once  inside,  and  the  air  of  this  excellent  branch  of  fair 
Harvard  is  oppressively  English.  It  has  been  established  a  little  over 
a  year,  and  actual  work  in  the  department,  at  least  the  hospital  part, 
has  been  in  progress  only  since  August  10th.  Such  an  institution 
is  a  novelty  in  Boston." 

"  Such  an  institution  is  a  novelty  "  ;  indeed  it  is,  gentlemen — a 
"  novelty  "  which,  as  an  American  citizen,  I  am  very  sorry  to  see 
engrafted  upon  Massachusetts  soil. 

Again,  in  the  Boston  "  Herald  "  is  an  advertising  column  headed 
"  Horses,  Carriages,  etc."  This  column  has  become  noted  all  over 
the  United  States  for  advertisements  of  the  very  worst  set  of  "  horse 
sharps "  that  infest  any  city  in  the  country.  Somewhere  we  have 
heard  that  "  a  man  is  known  by  the  company  he  keeps."  You  will 
learn  yet,  gentlemen,  that  "  'twon't  pay  "  to  have  an  advertisement 
of  your  school  appear,  as  it  does,  in  such  a  column  iand  in  company 
with  such  advertisements. 

What  does  it  show  you,  gentlemen  ?  It  should  demonstrate  to 
you  the  utter  unfitness  of  the  man  for  the  place  whom  you  have 
honored  with  the  position  of  head  of  this  department. 


A   NATIONAL   VETERINARY   INSTITUTE.  413 

Are  you  conducting  this  hospital  fur  the  benefit  of  the  school,  or 
for  that  of  the  veterinarians  attached  to  it  ?  Undoubtedly  you  say, 
"  For  the  school ! "  Then  why  allow  tlictn  to  use  the  name  of  Har- 
vard University  in  order  to  gain  jirivatc  practice  ?  Is  such  conduct 
in  accordance  with  medical  ethics  ? 

In  this  ''  Herald  "  advertisement,  as  well  as  those  appearing  in 
other  papers,  you  may  read,  ''  Calls  for  outside  visits  will  be  attended 
to  promptly  by  day  or  night."  I  may  be  Quixotic,  but  it  is  my 
opinion  that  no  one  coimected  as  teacher  with  such  a  school  can,  as 
a  ^professional,  make  such  a  use  of  his  position. 

Again  :  Is  it  an  honorable  thing  for  you  to  cut  prices,  for  ser- 
vices at  your  hosjntal,  \00  per  cent  less  than  the  regular  lyractitioner 
charges ;  less  than  those  your  own  graduates  loill  have  to  charge 
in  order  to  make  a  living,  or  to  keep  on  collegiate  terms  with  other 
professionals  ? 

In  this  regard  I  would  call  your  attention  to  the  following  : 


RATES  OF  CHARGES  MADE  BT  THE  REGULAR 

PROKESSIOS. 

Single  visits,  medicine  extra. ...   $3  00 

Repeated  visits  to    any  case — 
cow,  horse,  or  dog,  each 2  00 

All  operations  extra  ;  no  horse 

cast  less  than 6  00 

These  charges  have  reference  to  city 

proper. 


"  RATES  OP  CHARGES  AT  VILLAGE  STREET   HOS- 
PITAL." 

Board,  treatment,  and  medicine, 
for  sick  horses  per  day $2  00 

Board,  care,  and  medicine  for 
surgical  ca.ses — horse,  per  day,  1  00 

Board,  treatment,  and  medicine 

for  dogs  per  day 0  50 

Board  and  treatment  for  cattle 

per  day 1  00 

Examinations  and  advice  at  hos- 
pital      1  00 

"What  is  meant  by  "  examination  and  advice  at  hospital "  ?  Do 
you  mean  examination  for  soundness,  for  which  the  profession 
charges  $5  for  each  horse  examined?  In  your  contract  with  sub- 
scribers for  $10  per  year  you  agree  to  examine  ten  horses  and  do 
other  professional  work — in  other  words,  you  agree  to  do,  for  this 
paltry  sum,  work  for  which  any  professional  would  receive  $50  for 
examinations  for  soundness  alone. 

Gentlemen,  this  looks  very  much  as  if  you  were  trying  to  run 
the  veterinary  pntfession  of  Boston  and  vicinity  into  the  ground. 

AVhat  would  vou  think  of  a  father  who,  after  havinrr  taui'ht  a 
son  all  about  his  business,  and  that  son  had  started  in  business  for 
himself,  should  cut  the  prices  of  goods  in  this  manner?  You  would 
say  it  was  abominable.  Should  the  son  pay  for  his  instruction  and 
devote  three  years  of  his  life  to  learning  the  trade  when  he  might 
be  earning  money  at  something  else,  you  would  say  that  the  actions 


414  THE  MEANS  OF  PREVENTION. 

of  the  father  were  more  than  abominable ;  yet  this  is  exactly  what 
you  are  doing. 

When  we  see  the  University  of  Harvard,  of  which  we  rightfully 
expected  so  much,  taking  a  stand  far  below  that  of  any  of  the  pri- 
vate schools  of  New  York,  or  anywhere  else,  we  can  not  find  words 
to  express  what  we  consider  is  but  righteous  indignation. 

By  public  discussion  of  many  writers  the  field  has  been  prepared 
for  you,  but  you  have  only  gathered  the  chafE  and  left  the  wheat  for 
others  to  gather. 

The  University  of  Pennsylvania  is  setting  a  good  example  by 
proceeding  slowly  in  this  matter.  She  will  beat  you  in  the  race  of 
providing  a  really  good  school  unless  you  "  tack  ship  "  and  "  come 
round  "  on  a  more  "  weatherly  course."  * 

Every  word  which  President  Eliot  spoke  about  the  work  of  a 
medical  school  in  his  late  address  at  the  dedication  of  the  new 
building  is  applicable  to  the  Yeterinary  Department ;  but  not  one 
is  being  applied.  He  spoke  of  the  necessity  of  gathering  funds 
to  pursue  the  work.  With  regard  to  this  veterinary  school,  the  mat- 
ter has  never  been  written  up  in  the  papers  as  it  should  have  been 
done  ;  no  public  interest  has  ever  been  awakened.  Had  the  ques- 
tion been  taken  up  and  publicly  advocated,  we  know  of  what  we 
speak  in  saying  that  a  permanent  fund  of  at  least  $100,000  could 
have  been  raised,  and  not  with  any  great  amount  of  labor. 

The  Yillage  Street  Hospital  is  a  serious  mistake,  though  it  can 
yet  be  turned  to  advantage  for  the  school.  The  accommodations  at 
Bussy  Farm  are,  or  can  easily  be  made,  much  better  suited  to  a  hos- 
pital clinic  than  the  city  place.  Charenton,  Alf ort,  is  much  farther 
from  Paris  than  Bussy  Farm  from  Boston  proper,  yet  the  hospital 
there  is  always  full  enough,  and  at  Bussy  there  would  be  no  diffi- 
culty in  getting  from  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  patients  in  the 
hospital  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  There  are  a  class  of  patients 
that  can  pay  expenses,  which  no  practitioner  really  wants,  and  which 
are  essentially  fitted  for  school  instruction.  These  you  could  easily 
have,  and  without  in  any  way  antagonizing  the  veterinary  profession. 
In  fact,  they  would  cheerfully  assist  you. 

At  Yillage  Street  you  have  not  the  necessary  conveniences  for  a 
free  clinic ;  you  should  have  a  shed  to  protect  the  horses  and  men 

*  With  reference  to  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  it  would  seem  that  our  words 
have  not  fallen  upon  barren  ground.  Under  the  date  of  January  8,  1884,  the  dean  of  the 
Veterinary  Department  wrote  me :  "  /,  like  you,  am  absolutely  opposed  to  any  subscription 
plan,  and  expect  to  run  a  large  hospital  and  clinic  without  it.''''  From  which  we  may  as- 
sume that  it  has  been  dropped  for  this  school. 


STATE   VETERIN'ARY   SCHOOLS.  415 

from  the  weather,  and  a  paved  and  un])aved  run  upon  whicli  to  lead 
horses  in  order  to  examine  them  for  himeness.  A  pathological  labo- 
ratory is  as  necessary  as  an  anatomical  laboratory.  This  you  have 
not  at  either  place.  Nor  have  you  a  single  num  capable  of  teaching 
pathological  anatomy,  the  great  weakness  of  veterinary  medicine, 
and  jiractically  adapting  it  to  the  needs  of  veterinary  students.  To 
do  this  requires  a  practical  knowledge  of  the  diseases  of  animals, 
and  a  most  exact  knowledge  of  human  and  zoopathology,  so  far  as 
the  latter  is  written  up.  "With  regard  to  the  Village  Street  Hospi- 
tal, the  money  is  not  wasted,  for  the  building  can  be  let  for  stable- 
purposes,  and  yield  a  better  income  than  the  money  it  cost  w<juld. 
This  income  could  be  available  to  pay  some  of  the  expenses  at  Bussy. 
The  students  nmst  necessarily  waste  much  time  in  going  between 
the  three  localities  where  they  are  to  receive  instiiiction. 

The  veterinary  profession  of  the  country  earnestly  desire  the 
success  of  your  venture,  but  not  as  at  present  conducted. 

Summing  up,  tlicTi,  let  me  say  :  "  'Twon't  pay"  to  take  a  dishon- 
orable course  in  conducting  your  venture. 

"  'Twon't  pay  "  to  allow  your  teachers  to  use  the  fair  name  of  Har- 
vard College  to  advertise  themselves  in  order  to  gain  private  practice. 

"'Twon't  pay"  to  place  the  school  before  the  public  as  a  trans- 
planted weed  taken  from  English  ground,  with  all  the  evils  of  Brit- 
ish flunkeyism. 

'Twill  pay  in  every  way  to  drop  all  these  things,  and  act  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  most  exact  principles  of  medical  ethics. 

'Twill  pay  to  respect  the  feelings  and  position  of  every  member 
of  the  American  veterinary  profession. 

Trusting  these  words  will  be  received  as  they  are  written,  in  the 
true  interest  of  Harvard  Veterinary  School,  and  the  future  of  the 
veterinary  profession,  I  remain  your  obedient  servant. 


STATE  VETERINARY  SCHOOLS. 

Js  the  previous  section,  it  has  been  my  endeavor  to  show  the 
folly  of  private  schools  for  the  study  of  medicine,  and  that  the  evils 
connected  with  them  were  lar^rclv  due  to  nesrlect  of  its  duties  on 
the  part  of  the  State. 

We  come  now  to  speak  of  well-endowed — either  by  public  spirit 
or  otherwise — institutions  in  each  State,  but  in  all  respects  con- 
trolled by  the  State. 


416  THE   MEANS   OF  PREVENTION. 

The  question  we  have  to  consider  is  one  of  expediency,  not  of 
State-rights.  No  one  denies  the  right  of  each  State  to  a  veterinary 
school  if  properly  endowed  and  controlled.  What  I  do,  however, 
emphatically  assert  is,  that  such  a  system  is  not  in  the  interests  of  the 
citizens  of  any  one  State,  section,  or  whole  country.  There  are  some 
thirty-eight  States  in  our  Union  at  present,  with  every  prospect  of  a 
constant  numerical  increase  for  many  years  to  come.  Being  now 
thirty-eight,  if  this  plan  were  to  be  carried  out,  there  would  be  that 
number  of  schools.  Even  though  these  schools  were  regulated  by  the 
respective  States,  one  may  positively  assert  that  there  would  be  even 
less  uniformity  in  reference  to  the  term  of  study  and  examination 
requisite  than  at  present  nominally  exists  in  the  numerous  private 
medical  schools.  It  is  useless  to  suppose  there  would  be  much  if 
any  uniformity.  The  legislators  in  the  different  States  would  never 
look  upon  these  questions  with  such  unanimity  as  to  lead  to  any 
great  similarity  between  the  schools.  In  fact,  as  the  case  at  present 
stands,  there  are  scarcely  any  legislators,  among  the  great  number 
of  men  at  present  occupying  such  positions  in  the  different  States, 
that  are  sufficiently  educated  with  reference  to  the  history  of  veteri- 
nary medicine  to  legislate  sensibly  upon  the  subject.  Another  ar- 
gument, and  one  of  the  strongest,  is,  that  unanimity  in  veterinary 
schools  is  even  more  necessary  than  in  human.  Unless  it  exists — 
unless  the  education  and  term  of  study  are  the  same  in  each  State — 
how  will  it  ever  be  possible  to  attain  that  oneness  of  purpose  in  all 
States  which  we  have  shown  to  be  absolutely  necessary  for  the  con- 
trol and  prevention  of  animal  pests?  This  absolutely  necessary 
end  will  never  be  attained  by  State  schools.  State  schools  can  turn 
out  good  practitioners,  but,  for  the  above  reasons,  they  would  never 
turn  out  men  properly  educated  for  State  purposes.  State  schools 
would  mean  State  laws ;  yet  every  one  who  knows  anything  admits 
that  State  laws  for  the  purpose  we  are  considering  would  be  almost 
worse  than  useless.  The  manner  of  instruction  would  vary ;  the 
students  would  be  led  to  look  upon  the  pathology  of  the  contagious 
disease  from  too  many  stand-points.  We  should  soon  have  the  coun- 
try divided  up  into  about  as  many  opposing  cliques  as  there  were 
schools,  each  jealous  of  the  supremacy  of  the  other,  and,  although 
State  schools,  we  should  find  the  contemptible  rivalry  for  students 
which  now  disgraces  the  medical  schools.  There  being  no  hope  that 
the  standard  of  education  would  be  the  same  in  each  State,  cer- 
tain States  would  have  to  make  laws  to  protect  the  graduates  from 
their  own  schools  against  the  competition  of  graduates  of  inferior 
schools  in  neighboring  States.     Further,  there  are  not  competent 


STATE   VETERINARY   SCHOOLS.  4I7 

men  in  the  -whole  worUl,  who  can  he  liad  at  any  price,  to  furnish 
teachers  enough  for  two  new  aiul  thoroughly  organized  veterinary 
schools.  In  fact,  even  for  one  national  school,  we  shall  find  it  hard 
to  procure  the  recpiisite  number  of  scientitically  educated  and  com- 
petent teachers.  I  have  scarcely  seen  a  veterinarian  in  this  country 
whom  I  would  call  to  fill  a  chair  in  a  veterinary  tichool.  There  are  some 
who  are  well  enough  pi'actically,  but  when  we  come  to  seek  the  scien- 
tific foundation,  united  with  a  healthy  skejptlci»m  (by  that  I  mean  a 
critical  mind,  and  with  ability  for  original  research,  united  to  the  great- 
est necessity  of  all,  ah'dity  to  teac/i),  we  shall  find  it  hard  to  discover 
enough  English-speaking  men  the  world  over  suitable  to  our  purposes. 
It  has  suddeidy  dawned  upon  some  people  in  power  in  this  coun- 
tr}'  that  veterinarians  are  necessary.  In  one  State,  at  least,  they  are 
already  preparing  a  mill  for  grinding  them  out  even  faster  than 
they  do  doctor  in  the  medical  mills.  This  unenviable  State  is  Iowa. 
There  they  propose  a  State  school  which  shall  turn  out  graduates 
after  eighteen  months'  study.  "  These  graduates  nmst  be  eighteen 
years  of  age,  and  have  completed  the  entire  course  cf  study.'''*  To 
illustrate  how  much  these  Solons  know,  and  to  prove  my  assertion 
that  but  few,  if  any,  legislators  in  this  country  are  at  present  suffi- 
ciently instructed  upon  this  subject  to  legislate  properly,  we  are  in- 
formed that  the  "  sessions  begin  the  first  of  March  (each  year)  and 
continue  till  the  latter  part  of  November,  with  a  vacation  of  two 
weeks  in  July."  If  one  is  to  judge  from  the  above,  the  students 
are  either  not  to  study  any  anatomy,  or  the  laws  of  Nature  arc 
different  in  Iowa  from  other  places  in  the  same  latitude,  for  every- 
where else  the  time  especially  devoted  to  the  study  of  anatomy  is 
between  November  and  March ;  but  here  we  see  the  school  does 
not  continue  in  operation  between  November  and  March,  or  per- 
haps these  are  hot  months  in  Iowa,  and  putrefaction,  etc.,  prevent 
the  students  studying  anatomy,  so  that  it  is  studied  in  the  months 
between  March  and  November,  excepting  two  weeks  in  July, 
when  the  students  are  probably  dismissed  on  account  of  the  ex- 
tremely cold  weather.  The  published  "curriculum"  of  this  school, 
which  appeared  in  a  pamphlet  called  the  "  College  Quarterly,"  is 
one  of  the  most  amusing  yet  saddening  proofs  of  human  imbecil- 
ity it  has  ever  been  my  lot  to  read.  This  school  was  to  be  opened 
March,  1880,  yet  in  September,  1879,  the  writer  of  this  "et/rrict^ 
Jum''^  uses  the  present  tense,  and  tells  us  what  the  future  stu- 
dents are  already  doing;  among  other  things,  "hundreds  of  ani- 
mals are  presented  at  the  liospital  for  examinations "  held  at  the 
school  "  one  half  day  each  week." 
27 


418  THE   MEANS   OF  PREVENTION. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  the  Berlia  school  has  the  largest 
clinic  of  any  school  in  the  world,  yet  we  never  saw  "  hundreds  of 
animals  "  at  any  one  day  in  the  school  hospital  or  free  clinics  ;  al- 
though the  number  upon  the  grounds  on  a  given  day  might,  inclu- 
sive of  dogs,  be  about  two  hundred  and  fifty.  Yet  a  small  Western 
town  (Ames,  Iowa)  is  to  furnish  "  hundreds  "  of  patients  for  clinical 
exercises  which  take  place  "  one  half  day  each  weeTiP  Among  other 
wonderful  accessories  of  this  school  is  a  pair  of  "  scales,  capable  of 
weighing  one  twenty -thoiLsandth  of  a  graiwrne  " — a  thing  beyond  the 
present  range  of  human  ability.  The  faculty  of  this  Iowa  veteri- 
nary abortion  consists  of  seven  persons,  only  two  of  whom  seem  to 
know  anything  of  medicine,  and  one  only  of  veterinary  medicine. 
This  latter  prodigy  is  the  graduate  of  a  Canadian  school,  and  I  make 
bold  to  say  that  the  president  of  it  would  not  dare  affirm  that  he 
gives  an  education  suitable  to  prepare  men  for  teachers.  This  man, 
whom  the  editor  of  the  "  ]^ational  Live-Stock  Journal "  describes 
as  "  a  young  man  with  comparatively  little  experience  as  a  veteri- 
nary surgeon,"  is  su^jposed  to  head  this  institution,  so  far  as  the  vet- 
erinary profession  finds  any  representation.  He  is  to  teach  the 
whole  of  veterinary  medicine^  which  includes  the  following  techni- 
cal branches  :  General  pathology,  general  surgery,  special  pathology 
and  therapeutics  of  all  the  diseases  of  domestic  animals  ;  pathologi- 
cal anatomy,  special  surgery,  operative  surgery  and  practice ;  the 
pathology  of  the  contagious  animal  diseases  and  their  prevention 
(veterinary  hygiene  and  police),  forensic  medicine  (veterinary),  ob- 
stetrics, horseshoeing,  veterinary  history,  and  meat  and  market  in- 
spection— and  conduct  the  clinics,  and,  according  to  the  curriculum, 
also  attend  to  a  "  large  practice,  which  the  students  will  have  the 
privilege  of  assisting  in."  I  have  heard  of  such  a  thing  as  a  "  ser- 
vant of  all  work"  ;  the  great  Boerhaave  was  the  man^jfar  excellence 
in  this  regard  so  far  as  medicine  is  concerned,  but  we  think  even 
his  spirit  must  be  tortured  with  envy  at  the  supposed  ability  of  this 
young  man  "  of  comparatively  little  practical  experience."  The  work 
this  prodigy  is  expected  to  do  can  not  be  well  done  by  less  than  eight 
specialists^  and  they  supported  by  eight  more  specialists  in  the  dif- 
ferent natural  sciences  wdiich  are  necessary  to  the  comprehension  of 
the  purely  professional  branches.  If  this  school  is  not  even  a 
"  humbug  "  before  its  opening,  then  I  fail  to  know  the  meaning  of 
the  word.  I  must  say  that  the  adjoining  States  have  no  other 
course  than  to  order  a  severe  quarantine  against  the  graduates  of  this 
school.  The  old-school  empirics,  the  empirics  of  years,  of  which 
we  have  so  many,  will  be  found  far  more  worthy  of  confidence  than 


A   NATIONAL   VETERINARY    SCnOOL.  419 

the  eigliteen-year-oKl  t^raduates  of  this  veterinary  sproutiiif^-honsc. 
It  seems  to  me  that  no  other  evidence  is  needed  to  show  the  fallacy 
of  State  schools,  for  here  we  Jiave  one  in  optima  forma,  chartered, 
funded,  and  controlled  by  the  State.  Suppose  the  thirty-seven 
other  States  should  all  follow  suit,  each  after  its  own  fashion  I 
Doubtless  some  would  be  found  thinking  one  year's  study  would  be 
sufficient,  others  thinking  two,  while  in  some  isolated  cases  ex- 
tremely wise  legislators  might  insist  upon  three;  but  I  am  not  yet 
ready  to  believe  that  our  people  have  got  very  far  beyond  the  idea 
that  "  anything  is  good  enough  for  a  horse-doctor.''  At  least,  the 
experiences  of  daily  life  continually  couHi'm  me  iu  that  opinion. 


A  NATIONAL  VETERINARY  SCHOOL. 

For  advocating  this  idea,  the  president  of  the  Iowa  abortion  de- 
clares me  to  be  "visionary,"  whereas  I  think  about  all  there  is  in  his 
contemplated  school  is  the  result  of  a  vision  of  something  else  than 
the  teachings  of  veterinary  history.  Another  remarkable  critique 
declares  me  to  be  "  lacking  iu  a  knowledge  of  public  affairs  "  ;  to 
which,  if  he  nieans  American  politics,  I  plead  guilty,  and  trust  I 
may  continue  so. 

Some  four  years  ago,  I  was  myself  a  firm  friend  of  State 
schools ;  finally,  the  evils  of  such  a  system  became  so  conspicuous 
that  I  thought  sectional  schools  would  be  better ;  but  the  earnest 
study  of  all  the  }X3culiar  relations  of  veterinary  science  to  the  public 
wants  finally  convinced  me  that  they  could  only  be  most  profitably 
adjusted  by  one  school.  My  whole  purpose  in  educating  myself  es- 
pecially for  this  work  h:i.s  been  to  serve  my  country  to  tlie  best  de- 
gree possible.  "What  Continentiil  governments  do  for  the  people,  by 
educating  young  men  especially  for  the  positions  of  teachers,  and 
sending  them  to  study  in  foreign  countries,  I  have  done  at  my  own 
expense,  not  only  of  money,  but  almost  of  my  life.  Therefore  I 
feel  I  have  a  right  to  Bpeak  as  one  having  authority.  Naturally,  I 
expect  opposition,  but  my  opponents  should  have  alignments  instead 
of  mere  words  or  accusations  wherewith  to  show  I  am  wrong. 
There  is  no  need  of  being  in  a  hurry  in  this  matter.  "Haste  will 
make  waste,"  as  surely  as  the  people  of  the  different  States  go  heed- 
lessly forward,  and  endeavor  to  inaugurate  veterinary  schools  upon 
erroneous  principles,  such  as  those  adopted  at  Ilarvard  and  Phila- 


420  THE   MEANS   OF   PREVENTION. 

delphia,  but  wliicli  will  produce  au  even  more  damaging  failure  in 
Iowa. 

To  every  man  who  would  faithfully  serve  his  race  and  his  pro- 
fession, there  are  two  paths  open.  The  one  is  the  beaten  one,  full 
of  weeds,  crooked  ways,  and  cross-fences,  in  the  form  of  adhesion 
to  old  ideas  and  old  ways.  We  may  select  this  and  seek  to  make  it 
better,  to  clean  up  the  rubbish  and  let  in  daylight,  so  that  truth 
and  right  may  have  an  opportunity  to  develop.  This  path  may  be 
likened  to  a  man  who  would  rebuild  and  remodel  an  old  house, 
which  he  finds  entirely  unsuited  to  his  desires  and  to  the  times. 
This  is  generally  found  to  be  a  very  costly  method.  In  reference 
to  the  establishment  of  veterinary  schools  in  this  countrj'-,  fortu- 
nately for  us,  no  such  necessity  exists.  The  old,  to  be  culled  over, 
is  all  to  be  found  in  the  older  countries.  Why,  then,  should  we 
begin  where  they  began,  as  these  Iowa,  Harvard,  and  Pennsylvania 
authorities  are  about  to  do  ?  Why  not  first  take  time  to  "  look  be- 
fore we  leap,"  and  only  begin  when  we  have  found  out  not  only 
where  they  now  are,  and  accepting  the  best  of  that,  but,  cleared  from 
all  their  rubbish,  endeavor  to  start  with  those  advancements  toward 
which  the  best  Continental  schools  are  tending  as  fast  as  their  anti- 
quated incumbrances  will  allow?  This  is  the  other  plan,  and  the 
only  one  which  the  people  of  this  country  should  pursue.  That  I 
am  an  idealist  is  willingly  admitted,  but  that  I  am  "  visionary  "  is 
about  as  wide  from  the  mark  as  possible.  Every  man  who  desires 
to  lead,  must  not  only  of  himself  do  the  best  he  is  capable  of,  but 
he  will  never  attain  that  point  unless  he  has  an  ideal  better  which 
he  is  constantly  aiming  at.  Who  ever  heard  of  a  person,  endeavor- 
ing to  spring  over  a  ditch,  jumping  for  the  immediate  edge  of  the 
opposite  shore?  Truth  is  always  ideal;  we  seek  it  continually. 
Having  made  one  form  our  own,  we  turn  our  attention  immediately 
in  search  of  another.  She  is  ever  before  us.  Her  history  is  more 
unwritten  than  written.  Perfection  is  always  before  us.  She  is 
tlie  guiding  star,  without  which  the  human  race  would  soon  sink  into 
barbarism  again.  The  common  ruts,  if  continually  followed,  lead 
on  to  a  seK-conceited  nonentity,  pomposity,  and  ignorance.  They 
are  always  blocked  up  with  false  ideas  and  musty  superstitions. 
Truth  and  perfection  are  the  twin  sisters  to  clear  this  maze  away. 
Truth  and  perfection  are  both  extravagant,  and  by  too  many  always 
declared  visionary,  impi-acticable.  Their  apostles  have  been  cursed, 
hanged,  and  burned  at  the  stake.  They  are  the  men  who  have  made 
us  what  we  are ;  their  lives  and  works  constitute  the  history  of  the 
world.     Buddha,   Confucius,  Moses,  Jesus,  Paul,  Loyola,  Luther, 


A   NATIONAL   VETERINARY   SCUOOL.  421 

Spinoza,  Galileo,  Newton,  Descartes,  Knox ;  the  fathers  of  Ameri- 
can independence,  Washington,  Paine,  Jefferson,  Otis,  Adams,  and 
others;  Yesalius,  Bichat,  and  Yirchow  in  medicine;  Darwin,  Tyn- 
dall,  Huxley,  in  science  ;  and  the  fathers  of  America's  second  inde- 
pendence, Garrison,  Parker,  Sumner,  Whittier,  and  others,  have  all 
been  condemned  in  their  own  day  and  generation  as  visionary,  im- 
practical, extravagant ;  and  yet,  one  after  the  other,  succeeding  gen- 
erations have  raised  monuments  to  their  memory  and  pronounced 
them  most  practical  men. 

The  first  bugbear  which  threatens  our  purpose  is  to  be  sought 
in  some  secret  meaning  which  is  supposed  to  lie  behind  the  word 
"  national.''  It  is  assumed  by  some  that  I  desire  to  put  my  hands 
in  the  public  Treasury,  and  retire,  to  be  the  envy  of  the  Kear- 
neyites,  a  "  bloated  bondholder."  Others  suppose  that  by  the 
wi»rd  "national"  I  mean  a  school  endowed  and  controlled  by  the 
Government  at  AVashington ;  and  they  immediately  see  a  whole 
mountain  of  political  evils  overclouding  their  vision.  Beyond 
these  views,  no  one  seems  yet  to  have  proceeded,  notwithstand- 
ing five  years'  public  advocacy  and  repeated  restating  of  these 
ideas. 

The  only  sense  in  which  I  have  ever  used  the  word  national  is 
in  reference  to  a  plan  for  a  school  which  shall  best  serve  the  re- 
quirements of  the  central  Government,  the  State  governments,  and 
the  people  individually,  as  if  each  one  of  these  bodies  were  but  a 
single  individual  whose  entire  interests  were  to  be  served.  Any 
other  definition  of  my  meaning  is  but  a  perversion. 

One  school  for  the  nation  is  what  I  am  advocating,  until  the 
necessities  of  the  country  shall  require  another. 

Nothing  more  need  be  said  of  the  evils  of  private  or  State 
schools.  It  is  to  meet  all  these  evils  that  I  advocate  one  school. 
The  work  of  this  scliool  should  be  as  follows : 

1.  To  educate  veterinarians  who  shall  be  equal,  both  to  the  de- 
mands of  the  State  and  the  public. 

2.  To  supply  a  suitable  number  of  qualified  specialists  who,  in 
the  event  of  an  outbreak  of  contagious  animal  diseases,  or  a  suspi- 
cious connection  between  those  of  animals  and  man,  may  proceed, 
at  the  order  of  the  National  Board  of  Health,  or  at  the  request  of 
any  State  board,  to  the  invaded  district,  and  make  there  the  neces- 
sary researches  and  observations.  These  persons  should  always  oc- 
cupy the  position  of  assistants,  or  tutors,  at  the  school. 

3.  It  should  be  an  institution  at  which  all  manner  of  feeding, 
inoculation,  or    other  necessary   experiments  could   be    made,  by 


422  THE   MEANS   OF  PREVENTION, 

which  alone  there  is  any  hope  for  finally  arriving  at  the  causes  of 
disease,  or  the  means  for  their  prevention. 

4.  It  should  be  an  institution  where  carefully  detailed  experi- 
ments could  be  made  with  different  kinds  and  mixtures,  as  food  for 
animals,  in  their  relation  to  their  use  as  beef,  pork,  mutton,  milk, 
etc.,  as  food  for  human  beings. 

5.  It  should  be  an  institution  which  the  Government  could  always 
use  for  any  necessary  purposes,  or  to  which  farmers  or  other  persons 
could  send  suspected  food,  dead  animals,  or  portions  of  the  same,  or 
other  things  in  relation  to  their  health,  for  experiment,  research,  or 
proper  investigation. 

6.  It  should  be  an  institution  which  would  suppl}'  men  properly 
educated  to  become  veterinary  teachers  in  the  respective  State  agri- 
cultural schools. 

{a.)  With  relation  to  the  veterinary  instruction  suitable  to  stu- 
dents at  agricultural  schools,  it  is  my  opinion  that  it  should  be  lim- 
ited to  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  domestic  animals,  hygiene 
and  dietetics,  horseshoeing,  a  good  education  in  relation  to  the  con- 
tagious animal  diseases  and  their  prevention,  and  forensic  medicine, 
which  means  examination  as  to  soundness,  etc.  All  instruction  in 
special  pathology,  or  therapeutics,  as  well  as  surgery,  is  to  be  care- 
fully avoided,  for  it  only  leads  to  the  increase  of  the  already  too 
extended  number  of  empirics,  or,  what  is  still  worse,  quacks. 

7.  It  should  supply  the  necessary  number  of  veterinarians  for 
State  work  of  every  kind. 

While  these  are  the  principal  demands  which  we  have  a  right  to 
make  upon  such  an  institution,  there  are  many  advantages  connected 
with  it  which,  although  negatively  stated  heretofore,  should  now  be 
repeated  in  a  positive  manner. 

While,  in  advocating  07ie  school  for  the  nation,  I  do  not  deny 
the  right  of  States  to  individual  schools,  yet  I  truly  believe  that 
if  such  a  school  is  founded  in  correspondence  to  the  plan  herein 
stated,  both  State  schools  and  private  schools,  chartered  by  States, 
must  soon  suffer  a  speedy  death,  if  ever  allowed  even  a  moment's 
existence. 

In  one  school  we  have  but  one  standard  of  education,  and  that 
the  highest  practicable.  It  may  be  argued  that  "  opposition  is  the 
soul  of  progress."  To  which  I  answer  that  the  opposition  should 
be  seated  in  the  minds  of  the  teachers,  assistants,  and  tutors  of  the 
school,  as  well  as  its  numerous  graduates,  all  of  which  would  tend 
to  keep  the  school  alive  and  active. 

By  having  a  uniform  course  of  study,  and  only  one  grade  of 


A    NATIONAL   VETERINARY   SCHOOL.  423 

graduation,  the  people  have  no  difficulty  in  at  once  ascertaining  as 
to  who  is  an  accredited  num. 

Unless  we  have  one  form  and  grade  of  education  for  the  wliolc 
country,  it  will  be  absolutely  imjx^ssible  to  ever  have  any  eftectivc 
veterinary  police,  or  to  have  any  uniformity  in  tlie  laws,  or  to  meet 
the  requirements  set  forth  when  considering  this  part  of  our  subject. 
It  is  really  a  scientitic  question  to  decide,  how  all  these  ends  can  be 
met  by  one  institution.  Yet  it  is  possible.  The  first  question  is, 
How  can  we  have  an  institution,  national  in  its  purposes,  yet  free 
from  the  evils  of  American  politics  i  Naturally,  it  nnist  receive  its 
charter  from  the  central  Government.  Unless  the  institution  can 
serve  the  needs  of  the  Government,  it  is  absolutely  useless.  In  dis- 
cussing "'a  national  veterinary  police  code,"  I  have  shown  the  rela- 
tion of  the  government  to  the  schools,  and  said  that  the  Veterinary 
Inspector-General  of  the  United  States  shouhl  be  a  member  of  the 
board  of  trustees,  and  one  of  the  board  of  examiners.  This  gives 
the  Government  a  technical  representative.  If,  however,  such  an 
officer  is  appointed  by  political  nepotism,  then  the  less  lie  lias  to  do 
with  the  school  the  better.  He  must  be. selected  in  the  way  I  have 
said,  or  all  our  work  is  useless. 

I  propose,  then,  that  an  association  be  formed  and  chartered, 
with  the  right  to  hold  property,  personal  and  real,  to  the  amount  of 
two  million  dollars  ;  and  that  said  association  be  called  the  i\^a- 
tional  Associntioii  for  ihe  Promotion  of  Veterinary  Science  in  the 
United  States.  The  work  of  this  association  is  at  first  to  be  limited 
to  opening  subscriptions  for  funds.  In  the  eai-lier  pages  of  this 
book  we  have  endeavored  to  make  our  readers  cognizant  of  the 
very  near  relation  which  exists  between  many  animal  disea-ses  and 
human  health.  Every  man  and  woman  of  means  in  this  country, 
whose  education  will  permit  of  their  grasping  the  idea  of  preventive 
medicine,  should  contribute  accordingly  to  the  foundation  of  this 
institution.  It  is  an  object  which  should  especially  appeal  to  the 
self-interest  of  every  breeder  and  owner  of  domestic  animals  in  the 
country.  The  humanitarian,  the  enthusiastic  friends  of  our  domes- 
tic animals,  those  interested  in  the  reform  of  animal  transport,  are 
all  knocking  at  the  wrong  dr»or,  and  endeavoring  to  push  an  almost 
immovable  load  up-hill  without  the  aid  of  intelligent  and  highly 
educated  veterinarians. 

The  late  Commodore  Yanderbilt  saw  fit  to  endow  a  university. 
We  think  a  large  veterinary  institute  an  object  which  the  country 
has  much  more  need  of  than  more  universities  at  present.  It  seems 
strange  that  an  object  which  should  appeal  at  once  to  tlie^  generous 


424:  THE   MEANS   OF  PREVENTION. 

spirit  of  every  wealthy  American  should  have  been  openly  advocated 
for  a  period  of  more  than  five  years  without  finding  a  single  pub- 
lic supporter.  The  object  is  certainly  noble  ;  the  plan  proposed  is 
not  visionary,  for  it  has  found  able  support  from  several  medical 
men  of  eminence.  Then  why  this  apathy  ?  Is  it  because  the  vet- 
erinary profession  has  not  upheld  it  ?  There  is  no  such  thing  as  the 
veterinary  profession  in  this  country.  There  are  a  few  isolated  men 
of  variable  degrees  of  school  education,  but  these  all  seem  more 
afraid  to  tackle  this  subject,  jyro  or  con^  than  they  would  be  of  the 
"  rinderpest,"  which  they  would  not  fear  much,  in  all  probability, 
as  it  would  increase  their  yearly  balances.  Probably  it  is  because 
there  is  no  money  in  it.  "  Millions  in  it  "  is  the  only  thing  which 
could  awaken  a  profession  dead  to  all  professional  ambition,  and 
without  the  first  spark  of  a  genuine  scientific  spirit. 

To  form  such  an  association,  it  is  only  necessary  for  a  limited 
number  of  representative  breeders  and  patriotic  citizens  to  call  a 
preliminary  meeting  at  any  of  our  large  cities,  there  to  draw  up  a 
preamble,  and  a  few  regulations  calling  a  large  public  meeting  at  a 
later  date.  Hundreds  of  •responsible  men  are  interested  in  this 
undertaking,  but  all  seem  afraid  to  take  the  lead.  Once  having 
formed  a  permanent  association,  a  board  of  trustees  should  be  se- 
lected, so  as  to  represent  the  great  geographical  sections  of  the  coun- 
try, and  for  a  period  of  ten  years  each.  They  should  themselves 
select  their  own  officers.  The  treasurer,  who  in  the  future  should 
be  an  officer  of  the  school,  should  be  the  only  paid  man  ;  the  others, 
when  all  is  going  (if  it  ever  will  be),  should  receive  only  traveling 
expenses.  There  is  one  position  in  connection  with  such  an  associa- 
tion which  will  be  replete  with  work,  and  that  is  the  position  of  sec- 
retary. 

The  locating  of  such  an  institution  is  a  matter  of  immense  im- 
portance. All  things  considered,  it  seems  as  if  the  city  of  Cincin- 
nati were  esj)ecially  indicated  for  this  purpose.  It  is  sufficiently 
central  in  every  direction.  It  is  large  enough  to  furnish  all  the 
elements  for  a  clinic.  It  seems  to  be  more  or  less  excluded  from 
the  contemptible  jealousies  which  are  occasionally  cropping  out  be- 
tween our  other  large  cities.  While  I  am,  in  general,  in  favor  of 
uniting  such  an  institution  with  a  university,  our  conditions  seem 
rather  to  warrant  us  in  keeping  it  an  entirely  separate  institution. 
Such  a  connection  might  save  a  little  in  expense,  by  the  teachers 
in  several  of  the  natural  sciences  being  taken  from  the  university  ; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  natural  sciences,  with  the  exception  of 
botany,  need  to  be  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  use  of  veterinarians  ; 


A   XATION'AL   VETERINARY   SCHOOL.  425 

and  as  this  work  is  still  scarcely  begun  in  any  country,  it  is  suffi- 
ciently indicated  that  we  should  endeavor  to  found  an  institution 
where  they  may  be  especially  cultivated  ;  and,  in  selecting  teachers, 
we  must  endeavor  to  obtain  men  of  real  genius.  It  must  never  be 
forgotten  that  we  are  not  advocating  a  school  for  the  production  of 
horse-doctors,  but,  on  the  contrary,  an  institution  for  the  develop- 
ment of  those  natural  sciences  which  serve  as  the  foundation  for 
the  study  of  medicine,  the  development  of  veterinary  science  in  all 
its  branches,  and  the  education  of  scientifically  qualified  veterinary 
practitioners. 

The  school  mnst  have  the  scientific  spirit  permeating  all  its  ■work. 
It  is  because  our  medical  schools  are  almost  all  entirely  wanting  in 
this  particular  that  we  have  never  produced  a  great  medical  scien- 
tist. "NVe  have  developed  the  hand-work  by  borrowing  the  elements 
upon  which  it  is  founded  from  German}-  and  France.  What  we 
want  is  American  science  as  well  as  American  practice.  Science 
can  never  be  developed  except  with  state  support.  Sporadic  up- 
heaval may  be  witnessed  from  private  endeavor,  as  may  be  seen  in 
England.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  theoretic  and  practical 
in  a  medical  school  be  permeated,  saturated  with  this  scientific 
spirit.  No  one  who  has  not  lived  in  such  a  spirit  can  realize  how  it 
gradually  stimulates  even  the  drones  among  the  students.  It  is  like 
the  deacon  and  his  wonderful  trotters — the  spirit  of  emulation  grad- 
ually extended  to  the  deacon  also.  The  students  soon  begin  to  think 
and  seek  the  causes  of  things  ;  researches,  experiments,  take  more  of 
their  thoughts,  and,  instead  of  learning  practice  by  rote,  they  begin 
to  feel  the  desire  to  improve  it,  even  a.s  students.  "  The  reason 
why"  becomes  an  innate  part  of  their  being.  Unless  this  s]>irit  is 
shared  by  every  teacher  of  such  a  school,  in  so  much  is  it  a  failure. 
Only  men  having  this  spirit,  and  the  practical  ability  to  let  it  be 
seen  in  their  works,  are  suited  to  be  teachers. 

Such  an  institution  as  we  have  in  mind  requires  considerable 
land,  ten  acres  not  being  by  any  means  too  much.  It  will  require 
stables  for  hospital  use — isolated  stables  to  quarantine  animals  in- 
fected with,  suspected  of,  or  kept  for  experimental  purposes,  with 
contagious  diseases.  It  will  require  a  special  dog-hospital,  also  a 
special  stable  for  the  use  of  animals  to  be  kept  for  feeding  and  other 
experiments.  It  will  also  require  buildings  for  the  residences  of  the 
teachers,  servants,  and  pupils,  as  well  as  for  the  different  educational 
purposes. 

In  order  that  such  an  institution  may  fully  fill  all  the  demands 
we  have  a  right  to  make  upon  it,  great  circumspection  must  be  ex- 


426  THE   MEANS  OF  PREVENTION. 

ercised  with  respect  to  every  move  we  make.  Wliile  there  is  no  way 
bj  which  we  can  prevent  State  schools,  and,  if  we  may  judge  from 
the  past,  private  schools  also,  so  long  as  our  legislators  are  as  igno- 
rant and  heedless  as  they  now  are  with  reference  to  the  proper 
relations  of  our  medical  institutions,  by  which  I  mean  schools, 
practitioners,  etc.,  we  must  make  every  effort  to  discourage  their 
estabhshment.  We  may  be  certain  that  the  young  veterinary  aspi- 
rants will  go  to  that  school  which  gives  them  the  best  education  at 
the  least  expense.  There  is  but  one  way  in  which  a  national  school 
can  hope  to  kill  out  private  and  State  institutions  of  a  similar  char- 
acter. That  loay  is  to  make  it  free  to  the  students,  ^j  free  I  mean 
conditionally.  I  would  have  the  annual  fees,  including  everything, 
fixed  at  one  hundred  dollars,  payable  semi-annually.  Each  and 
every  student  should  be  obliged  to  pay  them.  But  the  conditions 
upon  which  each  student  may  receive  his  education  free,  should  be 
that  all  students  who  pass  a  successful  examination  at  the  first  trial 
for  the  diploma  of  the  institute  should  receive  back  all  the  fees  paid 
in,  inclusive  of  the  examination  fee  during  the  course  of  study  re- 
quired by  the  school ;  any  students  failing  in  their  first  examina- 
tion, or  retiring  from  it,  except  for  sickness,  or  not  completing  the 
course,  to  forfeit  all  fees  paid  in.  I  am  a  bitter  enemy  to  the  prize 
system,  which  selects  one,  two,  or  three  students,  who  may  acci- 
dentally pass  a  better  examination  than  their  fellows  ;  but  the  above 
plan,  being  open  to  all,  is  certainly  in  the  interest  of  parents  and 
students,  and  should  offer  an  extra  stimulus  to  study.  The  prize 
system  is  degrading,  for  an  examination  is  seldom  a  just  criterion  of 
the  comp^ing  student's  ability  ;  the  parrot  students  generally  win 
this  prize,  while  the  men  of  character  and  individuality  win  those 
of  the  world.  A  school  examination  is  a  hard  thing  for  men  of 
real  character.  It  is  generally  too  iniich  hooh^  and  not  enough  in- 
clined to  draw  the  real  knowledge  from  the  student.  To  carry  out 
this  plan,  and  pay  the  expenses  of  the  school  in  the  manner  which 
we  shall  in  part  detail,  requires  a  large  interest-bearing  fund,  but 
the  income  to  the  country  at  large  will  more  than  justify  the  invest- 
ment. 

The  course  of  study  must  extend  over  four  full  years,  of  ten  months 
each,  with  an  interval  at  the  Christmas  holidays.  This  may  seem 
excessive,  in  comparison  to  the  two-session  course  of  many  Ameri- 
can medical  schools,  but  a  proper  education^  an  education  equal  to 
the  demands  of  the  time,  and  in  the  spirit  of  modern  science,  can 
not  be  obtained  in  less.  While,  at  the  period  of  my  studies  at  Ber- 
lin, the  full  session  was  limited  to  three  years,  mine  was  the  last  class 


A  NATIONAL  VKTERINARY  SCHOOL,  427 

to  <,'railuate  at  the  eiul  of  three  yeai-s  ;  I  found  it  necessary  to  remain 
nearly  a  year  longer  to  fill  up  the  vacuums,  which  were  perceptible 
to  myself,  in  my  education  to  fit  myself  for  the  work  I  had  under- 
taken, and  to  feel  warranted  in  claiming  that  I  really  had  an  edu- 
cation with  a  scientific  foundation  ;  and  had  not  my  health  and 
means  both  been  pretty  well  exhausted,  I  should  have  certaiidy  add- 
ed a  year  more  to  my  school-days.  Still,  they  are  n(jt  ended  ;  the 
real  student  is  always  at  school,  whether  in  his  own  laboratory,  or 
busy  about  }>ractice,  or  enjoying  a  vacation.  The  educated  mind  is 
never  without  material  for  study,  A  scarcity  of  immediate  objects 
of  interest  is  often  necessary  in  order  that  time  may  be  gained  for 
skeptical  reflection.  The  Avord  ''  skeptic  "  is  used  in  the  sense  of 
critical,  not  in  an  anti-religions  sense,  as  unreflecting  people  seem 
always  to  thiidc  necessary.  The  same  is  true  of  the  word  "  radical," 
which  means  '•  root,"  or  one  who  endeavors  to  go  to  the  root  of  a 
matter ;  but  the  highly  educated  representatives  of  the  American 
press  seem  to  think  it  should  only  be  applied  to  spiritualists,  free- 
lovers,  or  other  similar  eccentricities  of  weak-minded  men  and 
women.     Pardon  these  few  digressive  words. 

An  inexcusable  mistake  of  all  veterinary  schools,  and  many  medi- 
cal as  well,  is,  that  the  school-year  for  freshmen  is  arranged  to  begin 
in  the  fall.  Every  teacher  that  has  had  experience,  and  who  makes 
a  study  of  his  work — that  is,  how  he  can  best  present  his  subjects  to 
the  students  (and  no  other  men  should  ever  be  teachers),  if  capable 
of  making  any  practical  observations  upon  the  difticulties  whicli 
students  have  to  overcome — must  realize  that  to  jump  them  into  the 
studies  of  a  general  first  winter  course,  as  they  now  ai*e,  without 
any  preparation,  is  but  a  waste  of  time  and  source  of  anxiety  to  the 
student,  and  aggravation  to  the  teachers.  The  time  for  students  to 
enter  upon  the  study  of  medicine  should  be  fixed  for  about  the  mid- 
dle of  March,  and  the  four-ycai*s  session  should  end  at  the  same 
time.  The  studies  of  this  first  term,  from  March  IStli  to  August 
1st,  should  be  osteolorpj,  chemistry,  ])hysies,  and  botany.  The  man- 
ner in  which  osteology  is  at  present  taught  in  most  schools  is  little 
more  than  a  farce  ;  the  student  learns  the  bones,  it  is  true,  their  pro- 
tuberances, museular  insertions,  and  cavities,  but  beyond  this  ho 
seldom  gets.  Bones  are  indeed  a  dry  subject.  This  is  all  wrong. 
There  is  no  branch  of  medical  study  which  can  be  made  more  inter- 
esting and  instructive  than  this,  and,  unless  it  is  taught  in  a  truly 
scientific  manner,  tiie  name  might  as  well  be  stricken  from  the  cur- 
riculum of  a  school.  It  should  first  begin  with  the  development  of 
bone-tissne  in  general,  demonstrated  by  the  teacher  upon  the  board  ; 


428  THE   MEANS   OF  PREVENTION. 

this  will  all  be  repeated  in  histology,  if  the  school  is  a  respectable 
one.  The  manner  in  which  each  bone  develops,  how  the  bone 
grows,  how  the  tuberosities  and  cavities  are  formed,  the  comparative 
anatomy  of  each  bone,  its  varying  uses,  and,  what  has  not  yet  been 
invented,  wooden  or  hard-rubber  skeletons,  with  elastic  muscles,  to 
illustrate  osteology^  as  well  as  myology.  I  am  opposed  to  the  teach- 
ing of  elementary  chemistry  in  medical  schools  ;  this,  elementary 
physics  and  botany,  should  all  be  placed  in  the  matriculatory  exami- 
nation ;  but,  so  long  as  that  is  at  j^resent  impossible,  we  must  do  the 
best  we  can,  and  give  the  students  a  very  thorough  education  in 
chemistry  and  physics.  With  reference  to  the  former,  each  theo- 
retic lecture  should  be  repeated  the  next  day  by  the  students  in  the 
laboratory,  so  far  as  it  had  direct  relation  to  the  practical  uses  of  the 
students.  Theory  must  be  made  practical,  or  else  it  is  not  science. 
It  is  but  words — empty  words  !  A  teacher  who  has  not  the  genius 
which  enables  him  to  apply  the  abstract  sciences,  such  as  chemistry 
or  physics,  to  the  practical  needs  of  the  students,  is  unfit  to  teach. 
In  most  medical  schools  this  fact  seems  to  be  entirely  lost  sight 
of.  Chemistry  is  taught  as  chemistry  ^er  se.  Many  a  man  is  suited 
to  teach  chemistry  for  chemical  students,  but  there  are  few  who 
have  the  genius  to  apply  it  to  the  practical  needs  of  medical 
students.  To  this  end,  the  teacher  of  chemistry  should  have  first 
studied  medicine,  and  have  graduated  as  an  M.  D.,  or  veterina- 
rian, and  then  have  studied  and  made  a  specialty  of  chemistry  and 
physics. 

"With  reference  to  botany.  A  good  knowledge  of  its  elements, 
the  classifications,  and  the  determination  of  the  species  of  plants, 
must  be  insisted  on  in  the  matriculatory  examination,  else  much 
valuable  time  would  be  lost  at  the  school.  The  botany  taught  at 
medical  schools  is  entirely  out  of  place.  Students  no  longer  need 
to  go  out  in  the  woods  to  gather  herbs.  In  pharmacognosy  and 
materia  medica  the  endeavor  should  be  to  make  the  student  thor- 
oughly acquainted  with  the  principal  medicines  in  dried,  crude,  and 
prepared  forms ;  but  the  teaching  in  botany  should  be  limited  to 
vegetable  anatomy  and  physiology,  with  microscopic  practice,  and 
a  careful  comparison  of  the  structure  and  functions  of  the  vegetable 
with  those  of  the  animal  world.  The  students  of  to-day  (and,  I  am 
sorry  to  say,  many  teachers)  do  not  realize  how  this  course  opens 
the  way  to  the  study  of  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  animal 
world.  It  not  only  opens  the  way,  but  gives  one  such  an  introduc- 
tion as  to  make  the  study  of  the  latter  branches  doubly  interesting. 

I  will  not  critically  consider  the  whole  course  of  study,  but  will 


A   NATIONAL   VETERINARY   SCHOOL.  429 

rather  give  a  course  of  study  to  be  extended  over  four  years,  as  I  at 
present  look  upon  the  question : 

I'lt'st  Stusio/i  {Spring  and  Sunu/ier),  March  15th  to  August  1st. — 
Introduction  to  the  study  of  veterinary  medicine,  by  the  director  ; 
osteology  ;  chemistry,  inorganic,  theoretical,  and  practical ;  physics  ; 
botany  (theoretic,  as  described) ;  zoology  ;  horseshoeing  (practical). 

ibW'ond  Kit'ssion  {Fall  and  M'lnter)^  October  1st  to  March  Ijth. — 
Zootomy*  (lectures and  practice);  chemistry,  organic,  and  practice; 
materia  meilica  and  pharmacognosy ;  history  of  veterinary  medi- 
cine ;  horseshoeing,  theoretic,  history. 

Third  Session  {Spring  and  Suminer). — Physiology  (part  first) ; 
histology,  ■with  ])ractice  ;  comparative  anatomy  and  embryology  ; 
materia  medica  ;  toxicology  ;  exercise  in  chemical  laboratory. 

Fourth  Session  {Fall  and  Wijiter). — Anatomy,  lectures  and  prac- 
tice ;  pliysiologv  (part  second);  nerve  physiology;  dietetics;  hygi- 
ene; breeding  (theoretic,  with  especial  regard  to  evolution) ;  reviews 
by  assistants  of  chemistry,  materia  medica ;  comparative  anatomy 
and  physiology. 

At  the  end  of  this  session  the  students  arc  to  be  examined  in 
the  above  branches.  Students  failing  to  pass,  to  be  put  back  one 
year. 

Fifth  Year  {Spring  and  Summer). — General  pathology  (with 
sketch  of  the  history  of  medicine) ;  general  therapeutics ;  general 
surgical  pathology  ;  special  surgical  pathology ;  special  pathology 
and  therapeutics  of  the  diseases  of  the  domestic  animals  ;  practice 
in  pliarmacy  ;  practice  in  writing  prescriptions. 

Sixth  Session  {Fall  and  Winter). — Clinic,  percussion  and  auscul- 
tiition  ;  pathological  anatomy,  demonstrative  and  microsco])ic  ;  oper- 
ative surgery  (theory  and  practice)  ;  special  surgical  pathology  ;  spe- 
cial ])athol()gy  and  therapeutics ;  exterior  (lectures  on  form  and 
soundness) ;  practice  in  pharmacy. 

Seventh  Session  {Spring  and  Summer). — Clinic ;  pathological 
anatomy,  as  above  ;  obstetrics  (theory  and  practice)  ;  veterinary 
sanitary  science  and  police  (contagious  animal  diseases  and  their 
prevention)  ;  forensic  medicine  ;  operative  surgery  (practice). 

Eighth  S-'Ssion  {F<dl  and  Winter). — Clinic  ;  physiology  (part 
first)  ;  general  pathology  ;  sanitary  science  and  police  ;  forensic 
medicine  ;  meat  and  market  inspection. 

The  work  of  this  last  session  should  be  to  fasten  as  much  as  pos- 
sible the  principles  of  medicine  in  the  minds  of  the  students,  and 

*  All  lectures  upon  special  branches  should  be  introduced  with  a  short  sketch  of  the 
principal  events  in  their  development 


430  THE   MEANS   OF  PREVENTION. 

give  them  time  for  reviewing.  The  members  of  the  graduating 
class  should  also  be  allowed  to  oversee  the  students  in  the  anatomi- 
cal laboratory — a  certain  number  at  a  time — in  order  that  they  may 
have  a  final  opportunity  to  refresh  their  minds  in  this  important 
branch  before  appearing  for  examination. 

This  plan  of  study  is  doubtless  open  to  improvement,  but  I  ven- 
ture to  say  that  it  is  better  than  any  at  present  followed.  Its  aim 
is  to  unite  theory  and  practice  to  the  fullest  possible  degree. 

At  the  end  of  the  eighth  session  the  students  will  appear  for 
their  final  examination.  Written  examinations — with  the  exception 
of  a  portion  of  the  clinical — are  a  farce.  The  aim  of  an  examina- 
tion is  to  ascertain  the  real  ability  of  the  candidates.  Originality 
of  expression  should  be  cultivated,  and  the  teachers  should  endeavor 
to  place  the  ^'' jparrots^''  or  book  -  repeaters,  where  they  belong. 
Grade  examinations,  "good,"  "better,"  "best,"  are  another  farce. 
The  school  should  have  but  one  standard — either  a  student  passes 
a  satisfactory  examination,  or  it  is  pronounced  xLiisatisfactory. 
The  fate  of  the  "first  men  in  their  classes"  in  the  arena  of  the 
world  is  too  often  otherwise  than  that  which  is  expected.  All 
students  passing  an  unsatisfactory  examination  should  be  put  back 
one  year,  and  forfeit  all  rights  to  the  refunding  of  their  fees  for 
any  part  of  the  term.  The  director  should  signify  the  special  lec- 
tures they  must  attend. 

A  list  of  each  year's  graduates  should  be  published  in  the  school 
organ,  as  well  as  in  the  leading  agricultural  and  sporting  papers. 
The  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Health  of  the  State  fi'om  which  each 
graduate  comes,  as  well  as  the  presiding  officer  of  his  native  place, 
are  to  be  notified  of  the  candidate's  graduation,  which  must  be  pub- 
lished in  a  public  print  of  the  place.  All  State  boards  of  health 
should  also  receive  an  official  list  of  each  year's  graduates. 

The  writer  would  also  seriously  recommend  the  idea  of  endeav- 
oring to  introduce  into  the  country  a  more  intelligent  and  trust- 
worthy class  of  grooms  and  coachmen,  and  to  this  end  would  suggest 
that  the  attendants  in  the  stal^le  be  young  men  from  fifteen  to  nine- 
teen years  old,  who  can  read  and  write ;  that  their  pay  be  merely 
nominal,  but  enough  to  feed  and  clothe  them,  and  that  they  have, 
from  the  superintendent  of  the  clinic,  lectures  on  treatment,  on 
stable  hygiene,  and  feeding,  carefully  illustrating  the  dangers  of  in- 
considerate and  inopportune  feeding;  fi'om  the  lecturer  on  horse- 
shoeing, special  general  lectures  on  the  care  of  the  foot  in  health ; 
and  from  the  lecturer  on  physiology,  some  general  lectures  on  physi- 
ology.    Such  a  course  would,  it  seems  to  me,  be  nationally  benefi- 


A   NATIONAL   VETERINARY   SCHOOL.  431 

cial,  and  pay  not  only  tlic  liiMrers,  in  years  to  come,  but  tlio  com- 
munity at  large.  These  lectures  should  be  open  to  the  public  at  a 
nominal  })rice,  and  gentlemen  could  have  the  privilege  of  sending 
their  grooms  or  coachmen,  and  farmei-s  of  attending  during  the 
winter  months.  Thus,  and  only  by  carrying  out  a  plan  such  as  this, 
can  we  expect  to  build  up  our  science  in  America. 

"While  I  am  so  earnestly  oi)posed  to  State  schools,  on  account  of 
the  seeming  impossibility  of  ever  arriving  at  a  uniform  system  of 
education  for  one  and  all  of  them,  and  a  uniform  grade  of  examina- 
tion, yet  I  do  not  assert  that  one  school,  or  institution,  is  sufficient 
to  cover  the  entire  needs  of  the  country.  It  ca?i  supply  the  reipiired 
number  of  veterinarians,  and  it  can  do  an  immense  amount  of  scien- 
tific research,  but,  to  fulfill  all  the  requirements  which  may  be  made 
in  this  direction,  another  form  of  institution  is  necessary. 

These  are :  research,  experiment,  stations,  one  in  each  State,  at 
the  service  of  and  under  the  control  of  the  State  Board  of  Health, 
represented  by  the  Chief  Veterinary  Inspector  of  the  State.  The 
value  of  such  an  institution  to  the  people  of  each  State  can  not  well 
be  appreciated  in  a  country  M'here  no  such  thing  exists.  They 
should  be  small,  neat  stables,  with  a  quarantine  stable  for  infectious 
diseases  ;  they  also  should  have  a  microscopical  and  chemical  labora- 
tory, and  each  should  have  about  two  acres  of  land  with  them.  In 
each  State  there  should  be  meat  inspectors,  especially  pork  inspectors ; 
part  of  the  duty  of  the  State  veterinarian  should  be  to  give  a  course 
of  lectures  each  year  upon  these  subjects,  with  the  necessary  demon- 
strations. In  case  this  official  could  not  be  spared  for  such  a  pur- 
pose, the  State  should  engage  a  competent  man  for  the  purpose  from 
among  the  veterinarians  in  the  State. 

With  such  an  institution  at  its  command,  the  Board  of  Health 
can  constantly  make  feeding  experiments  with  suspected  milk,  or 
with  reference  to  tnhercuh>.sis  of  cows,  or  any  other  subject  of  im- 
portance to  the  people  of  the  State.  "Without  such  an  institution 
at  its  command,  the  hands  of  such  a  board  are  more  or  less  tied. 

The  National  School  should  be  at  the  command  of  the  National 
Board  of  Health,  or  National  Inspector-General,  for  similar  purposes. 

TlIK    TEACnERS. 

Sooner  or  later  "civil  service  reform"  has  got  to  be  introduced 
into  our  higher  institutions  of  learning,  as  well  as  the  Government. 
With  reference  to  the  institution  we  are  considering,  it  can  not  and 
will  not  ever  be  successful  if  its  teachers  are  selected  and  rewarded 
as  such  persons  now  are  in  this  country.     Witli  reference  to  the  se- 


4:32  THE   MEANS   OF  PREVENTION. 

lection  of  the  first  corps  of  teachers,  were  the  school  in  readiness,  I 
must  confess  I  am  myself  somewhat  at  a  loss  what  course  to  pursue. 
Still,  I  think  that  the  competitive  method  in  vogue  in  France,  which 
must  be  adopted  in  all  future  cases,  could  also  be  made  available 
here  by  giving  public  notice  in  this  country,  France,  Germany,  and 
England,  of  the  chairs  to  be  filled,  said  notice  to  be  given  at  least 
nine  months  before  the  competition  is  to  take  place.  In  addition, 
the  duties,  accommodations,  and  remuneration  should  all  be  dis- 
tinctly declared.  Foreigners  should  be  allowed  a  certain  fixed  sum 
for  traveling  expenses.  Another  plan  would  be  to  select  a  com- 
mittee of  three  and  send  them  on  a  search ;  but  this  is  really  im- 
practicable, in  my  opinion. 

As  opposed  as  Americans  have  ever  been  to  the  pensioning  sys- 
tem, it  must  be  adopted  in  the  scientific  and  higher  schools  of  this 
country  before  we  can  hope  to  make  any  progress  in  science.  Mod- 
erate pay  during  active  life,  and  a  fair  pension  for  themselves  or 
their  immediate  family  for  a  fixed  period,  and  under  fixed  conditions, 
is  the  only  plan  upon  which  we  can  ever  hope  to  control  the  real 
geniuses  among  scientists  for  educational  purposes.  There  are  but 
very  few  men  of  original  genius  who  would  not  gladly  sacrifice  all 
hope  of  great  earthly  reward,  and  who  would  most  joyfully  devote 
their  whole  services  to  the  State,  were  they  only  secured  a  comfort- 
able living  during  the  active  period  of  their  lives,  and  a  just  pension 
to  themselves  when  old  or  worn  out,  to  be  secured  to  their  widows 
during  life,  and  proportionately  to  minor  children  until  sixteen 
years  of  age.  Americans  may  "  kick  against  (these)  pricks  "  all  they 
please ;  come  to  it  they  will  and  must,  be  it  anti-American  or  not. 
There  are  a  great  many  things  that  a  bigoted  and  ignorant  Ameri- 
canism at  present  pronounces  "  anti- American  "  which  a  more  intel- 
ligent and  liberal  future  will  adopt.  It  is  not  a  support  for  laziness 
which  we  are  demanding.  It  is  the  just  rewards  for  genius.  Every 
man  of  any  education  and  liberality  knows  that  most  men  of  true 
scientific  genius  are  scarcely  fit  to  take  care  of  themselves  so  far  as 
monetary  matters  go.  They  have  no  time  for  such  trifles.  The 
costs  in  the  end  to  the  State,  or  to  the  association,  which  in  this  case 
will  have  to  assume  them,  will  not  exceed  those  which  would  accrue 
from  higher  salaries  during  active  life.  Residences  for  the  teachers, 
servants,  and  pupils  should  be  found  on  the  grounds.  For  the  two 
former  they  should  be  free ;  for  the  latter  at  a  reasonable  rent. 
Every  teacher  should  be  retired  and  pensioned  when  sixty  years  of 
age,  no  matter  how  active  he  may  still  be,  and  his  place  filled  by 
young  power.     Every  vacancy  must  be  filled  by  public  competition 


A  NATIONAL  VETERINARY  SCHOOL.  433 

of  the  candidates  before  the  teachers  as  a  body,  and  some  representa- 
tive members  of  the  board  of  trustees.  It  must  never  be  forgotten 
that  genius  for  researcli  united  to  great  knowledge  is  not  sufficient 
to  constitute  a  man  a  teacher  suitable  to  the  young  (or  old).  Genius 
for  teaching,  enthusiasm  in  teaching,  and  ability  to  apply  one's 
knowledge  practically,  is  an  absolute  necessity.  Without  this  ability 
the  most  gifted  genius  is  useless  to  a  school  as  a  teacher,  however 
valuable  he  may  be  to  the  country  at  large  as  an  original  investi- 
gator. AVe  must  endeavor,  to  the  best  of  our  ability,  to  obtain  men 
uniting  these  three  qualifications  to  a  high  degree. 

TuE  Students. 

On  account  of  the  great  extent  of  this  country,  and  the  variation 
existing  in  the  different  States  with  regard  to  the  standard  of  differ- 
ent schools  bearing  similar  names,  a  matriculatory  examination  will 
be  an  absolute  necessity.  This  should  extend  to  a  thorough  exami- 
nation in  all  English  branches,  which  a  graduate  of  a  high-school 
should  have  perfected  himself  in,  as  well  as  a  knowledge  of  Latin 
grammar,  and  ordinary  translations.  As  to  Continental  languages, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  a  knowledge  of  German,  especially,  and 
French,  is  more  indispensable  to  the  veterinarian  than  to  the  medi- 
cal practitioner.  While  much  of  the  best  foreign  literature  is  soon 
translated  for  the  benefit  of  the  latter,  the  veterinarian  has  to  wait 
years,  and  loses  much  of  it  altogether.  It  is  impossible  for  the  Ameri- 
can veterinarian  who  docs  not  read  these  two  languages  to  estimate 
the  great  difference  which  exists  between  the  German  and  French 
reviews  and  those  of  England.  As  to  the  American,  they  are  scarcely 
worthy  of  the  name.  Again,  a  good  rudimentary  knowledge  of 
zoology,  chemistry,  physics,  and  botany  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
the  young  student  entering  upon  the  study  of  medicine ;  without 
this  he  is  constantly  feeling  his  way  in  the  dark.  Each  applicant 
must  be  at  least  eighteen  and  not  over  twenty-five  years  of  age. 
Not  every  youth  is  fitted  either  to  become  a  veterinary  or  medical 
practitioner. 

As  I  am  now  drawing  my  "  Buchlein"  to  a  close,  I  may  be  al- 
lowed the  liberty  of  ending  it  with  a  few  remarks  upon  the  general 
principles  of  education,  which  I  hope  will  not  be  without  interest, 
and  perhaps  benefit,  to  the  reader. 

The  ground  covered  by  the  word  education  is  covered  by  but 
one  other,  and  that  is  life.  From  the  day  of  birth  until  we  pass 
away  beyond  earthly  scenes  we  are  in  a  constant  process  of  educa- 
tion.    The  history  of  the  rise,  progress,  and  development  of  educa- 

28 


434  THE  MEANS  OF  PREVENTION. 

tion  is  tlie  liistorj  of  man.  Commerce  and  intercourse  have  been 
the  two  great  factors.  Education  includes  marriage,  parentage,  and 
all  life's  responsibilities  within  its  limits.  Solemn  subject,  which 
never  ends  but  with  life !  Subject — the  beginning  of  which  is  so 
subtile  that  no  man  dare  indicate  the  moment  when  the  first  reflective 
brain-action  begins,  other  than  that  it  begins  with  the  worldly  life 
of  the  individual.  It  is  the  attribute  of  all  the  higher  forms  of  ani- 
mal life,  differing  only  in  degree  and  quality.  The  so-called  in- 
stincts are  not  alone  the  attributes  of  the  lower  animals ;  man  has 
them  also.  They  may  be  defined  as  action,  which  f  oUows  so  quickly 
on  thought  that  thought  and  action,  cause  and  effect,  are  not,  even 
by  the  individual,  to  be  distinguished  from  one  another.  This  re- 
mark has  no  reference  to  those  intellectual  peculiarities  which  dis- 
tinguish mankind  from  the  lower  animals.  ]^o  action  takes  place 
in  the  animal  organism  without  the  irritation  of  specific  nervous 
centers.  Hunger  is  among  the  attributes  which  we  enjoy  in  com- 
mon with  the  lower  animals.  The  attempt  to  stay  it  is  not  instinct- 
ive in  the  lower  animals  any  more  than  with  man.  The  manner  of 
staying  it  is  different.  In  both  species  it  is  dependent  upon  a  cer- 
tain form  of  irritation  of  the  trophic  nerve-endings  in  the  stomach 
(perhaps  intestines  also),  which  is  transmitted  to  certain  centers  in  the 
brain,  and  irritates  them,  causing  reflection  (in  lower  animals  as  well 
as  in  man),  and,  as  a  natural  result,  the  seeking  for  food. 

There  rules  in  the  community  an  idea  that  the  different  grades 
of  intelligence — the  so-called  "  gifts  "  (illustrated  by  the  expression 
"  that  one  person  is  more  gifted  than  another,"  one  animal  possessing 
a  greater  development  of  its  instincts  than  another) — are  something 
special ;  some  mysterious,  spiritual  force  or  forces,  which  such  organ- 
isms have  received  from  the  Creator.  They  seem  to  entirely  overlook 
the  true  conditions  which  lead  to  these  differences.  These  differences 
are  founded  upon  variations  in  the  anatomical  structure  of  the  centers 
of  intelliorence  in  different  individuals.     It  is  not  known  whether 

o 
chemical  differences  in  the  elements  forming  these  centers  are  pres- 
ent or  not ;  the  anatomical  variations,  while  axiomatically  true,  have 
never  as  yet  been  demonstrated.  This  work  belongs  to  the  science 
of  the  future.  Changes  in  the  anatomical  structure  of  the  nervous 
centers  of  intelligence  are  immediately  followed  by  variations  in  the 
functions  of  these  parts,  and  finally  demonstrate  themselves  by 
changes  in  the  phenomena  produced,  varying  in  degree  according 
to  the  anatomical  changes  of  the  elements. 

The  unit  of  animal,  as  well  as  vegetable  life,  is  the  cell.  Beyond 
that  we  do  not  need  to  go.     "  Omnis  cellula  e  cellula,"  says  the 


A  NATIONAL  VETERINARY  SCHOOL,  435 

great  master  of  medicine,  Virchow.  "While  "we  look  upon  the  cell 
as  the  unit  of  life,  we  have  to  pay  our  attention  to  the  n?iit3  of 
which  it  is  composed.  A  cell  is  a  mass  of  protoi)lasm,  with  or  with- 
out an  inclosing  membrane,  with  or  without  a  nucleus  or  nucleolus. 
Changes  in  this  protoplasm  cause  variations  in  the  functions  of  the 
cell.  The  work  of  the  cell,  the  part  it  tiikes  in  the  animal  or  vege- 
table economy,  is  dependent  upon  the  composition — molecular  rela- 
tions and  chemical  nature — of  its  protoplasm.  This  is  the  consti- 
tution of  the  cell.  If  the  constitution  is  normal,  the  functions  of 
the  cell  are  normal.  If  the  relations  and  nature  of  any  of  the  ele- 
ments vary  to  any  great  degree,  so  that  the  influences  of  the  varia- 
tions, on  the  part  of  one  or  a  group  of  cells,  can  not  be  equalized  by 
the  action  of  the  others,  then  the  functions  of  the  cell  become  ab- 
normal to  a  corresponding  degree.  Abnormality  can  only  take 
place  in  three  directions — viz.,  a  plus,  a  minus,  and  an  entire  cessa- 
tion of  functional  activity.  The  sum  of  the  cellular  functions  con- 
stitutes life.  The  variable  phenomena  of  life,  in  different  individuals 
of  one  and  the  same  family,  are  invai'iably  dependent  upon  varia- 
tions in  the  anatomical  relations,  or  in  the  protoplasm  of  which  the 
cells  ai*e  composed,  or  in  those  organs  in  which  such  differences  ai*e  ob- 
servable. This  doctrine  may  be  traced  in  the  early  medical  writings. 
We  find  it  intimated  by  the  grand  Greek,  Hippocrates,  the  father 
of  medicine.  His  four  humors — blood,  black  gall,  white  gall,  and 
mucus — gave  rise  to  the  constitution  of  the  individual.  The  tem- 
peraments were  dependent  upon  the  relations  of  the  humors  to  one 
another.  The  cell  being  considered  as  a  unit,  an  indefinite  number 
of  these  units,  collected  together  for  one  purpose,  form  an  organ,  a 
greater  unit ;  and  the  union  of  a  certain  number  of  these  larger 
units,  each  with  its  special  functions,  each  with  its  work  to  do  for 
itself,  for  its  own  existence,  as  well  as  work  to  do  for  the  benefit  of 
each  of  the  organs  united  with  it,  constitutes  the  functions  of  that 
complex  unit — if  I  may  l)e  allowed  the  term — the  organism.  Con- 
sidered as  a  unit,  the  organism  does  not  differ  from  the  cell.  Its 
constitution  is  dependent  upon  the  anatomical  relations  and  chemical 
composition  of  its  elements.  Its  functions  are  dependent  upon  their 
normal  relation  to  each  other  fur  their  perfect  completion.  Its  tem- 
perament upon  the  same,  Man's  organism  has  work  to  do  to  keep 
itself  in  condition,  as  well  as  its  part  to  keep  the  machine  (unit)  in 
existence,  which  wo  call  humanity. 

The  diversity  of  intellectual  "  gifts"  is  neither  special  curse  nor 
special  blessing.  It  is  based  upon  variations  in  the  structural  rela- 
tions, molecular  proportion,  or  chemical  conditions  of  the  different 


436  THE  MEANS  OF  PREVENTION. 

nervous  centers  situated  in  the  brain.  Cheerfully  admitting  that  this 
is  a  priori  reasoning,  yet  I  do  not  lose  hope  that  the  investigators 
of  some  future  day  will  be  able  to  discover  and  describe  some  of 
these  changes.  Why  one  child  is  bom  brilKant  and  another  weak 
in  intellect,  from  the  same  parents,  and,  so  far  as  we  know,  under 
the  same  conditions,  is  not  dependent  upon  punishment  from  God, 
but  upon  variations  in  the  molecular  construction,  or  chemical  com- 
ponents (?)  of  the  protoplasm  of  the  cells,  or  upon  anatomical  va- 
riations of  a  coarser  kind.  The  causes  of  these  variations  are  gen- 
erally present  at  the  moment  of  the  fructification  of  the  ovum  of  the 
mother  or  in  the  sperm  of  the  father,  or  are  due  to  influences  which 
are  exerted  upon  the  foetus  while  being  carried  by  the  mother. 
The  elements  of  these  nervous  centers  in  such  conditions  do  not 
suffer  such  marked  changes  that  we  have  been  able  to  discover  them, 
although  it  is  true  that  exact  investigation  in  this  direction  is  but 
in  its  infancy.  In  extreme  cases,  variations  in  cranial  formation 
may  be  present,  but  they  are  not  necessary ;  nor  do  they  occur 
when  loss  of  intellect  or  disturbances  take  place  during  life  from 
over-exertion,  shock,  or  other  causes ;  yet,  in  such  cases,  we  must 
assume  that  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  active  elements  of  those 
centers  in  the  brain,  a  disturbance  of  which  is  indicated  by  the  ab- 
normal phenomena  which  have  attracted  our  attention. 

Every  child  is  a  unit — an  organism  composed  of  a  certain  num- 
ber of  small  units,  the  organs,  which  themselves  are  composed  of 
untold  numbers  of  still  smaller  units,  the  cells.  The  normal  rela- 
tions and  actions  of  all  these  parts  regulate  the  constitution  of  the 
child.  The  functions  of  the  brain  do  not  differ  from  this  rule ; 
they  are  dependent  upon  its  anatomical  structure  in  part  or  as  a 
whole.  It  is  impossible  to  make  a  child  anything  different  intellectw- 
ally  than  this  anatomical  structure  of  the  brain  will  allow.  This 
is,  however,  somewhat  dependent  upon  the  relations  of  the  brain  to 
the  other  parts  of  the  body.  Incomplete  action  of  one  or  the  other 
of  the  important  organs  may,  and  does  frequently,  lead  to  changes 
of  importance  in  the  brain,  but  in  their  nature  so  subtile  as  to  escape 
our  present  means  of  observation.  While  the  brain  functions  of 
the  child  are  in  reality  thus  limited,  the  limits  are  of  such  a  nature 
that  in  the  normal  child  they  are  never  attained.  They  will  answer 
aU  the  demands  which  can  be  made  upon  them,  but  the  result  is 
always  dependent  upon  their  structure  and  appositional  relations. 
Why  one  child  will  he  a  veterinarian  or  a  breeder  of  animals,  another 
a  merchant,  another  a  seaman,  or  a  minister,  or  a  student  of  some 
one  of  the  natural  sciences,  against  the  earnest  wiU  and  wishes  of  its 


A  NATIONAL  VETERINARY  SCHOOL.  437 

parents,  is  neither  dependent  on  "pure  cussedness''  nor  upon  any 
special  influence  of  the  devil  or  any  of  his  agents,  nor  upon  obsti- 
nacy or  ill-will,  as  many  parents  supjiose,  but  upon  fixed  and  uii- 
chanjreablo  anatomical  conditions  in  its  brain.  The  same  is  true  of 
many  unfortunates  who  from  early  childhood  develop  a  tendency 
to  destroy  and  torture  animal  life,  and  who  sometimes  bring  up  as 
murderers.  The  causes  of  such  conditions  arc  in  a  measure  at  pres- 
ent beyond  our  knowledge.  They  have  been  undoubtedly  strength- 
ened by  heedless  marriage.  Marriage  is  indeed  a  solemn  thing ; 
the  world  scarcely  realizes  how  solenm.  Marriage,  as  in  general 
conducted,  is  a  senseless  thing.  It  is  dependent  upon  fancy  ;  upon 
certain  supposed  affinities,  which  do  not  exist  save  in  tlic  unreflect- 
ing minds  of  excited  lovers.  Love  itself  is  based  upon  certain  centers 
in  the  brain.  Love  and  setisuality  have  no  relation  or  connection 
with  one  another.  The  thing  called  love^  which  at  best  is  l)ut  mere 
fancij^  may  exist,  but  the  genuine  article  is  entirely  free  from  it. 
The  situation  of  the  two  centers  is  widely  separated.  Some  day 
mankind  will  instigate  as  careful  investigations  into  the  pedigree  of 
each  other  with  relation  to  inherited  diseases  as  they  do  now  in 
endeavoring  to  trace  a  connection  to  some  broken-down  sprig  of 
Continental  snobocracy.  Some  day  we  shall  exercise  as  much  care 
in  selecting  our  partners  as  we  do  now  in  selecting  animals  for  breed- 
ing. The  purpose  of  marriage  is  to  continue  the  race.  For  no 
other  purpose  are  we  made  male  and  female.  The  same  is  true  of 
every  member  of  the  animal  kingdom.  Tubercular  consumption  is 
not  only  increasing  in  extension,  but  the  average  age  at  which  such 
people  die  is  decreasing  in  the  human  family.  We  charge  it  all  to 
the  changeableness  of  our  climate.  The  climate,  the  irritations  of 
life,  are  simply  sufficient  causes  to  set  the  disease  in  motion.  The 
true  cause  is  to  be  sought  in  the  weak  lung-tissues  which  we  trans- 
mit to  our  children.  This  weakness  has  been  constantly  and  igno- 
rantly  increased  at  the  expense  and  misery  of  the  children  produced. 
"We  talk  about  our  boasted  civilization.  The  breeders  of  cattle  know 
this  fact,  and  exclude  from  breeding  animals  which,  were  they  hu- 
man beings,  would  marry  if  they  took  a  fancy.  "Were  they  to  do 
this,  they  would  do  what  Inimanity  docs  for  itself — condemn  its  chil- 
dren to  lives  of  misery  and  an  early  grave,  llow  does  the  medical 
profession  deport  itself  toward  tliis  question  ?  Is  it  true  to  the  sci- 
entific spirit  of  preventive  medicine?  No — a  thousand  times  no! 
Its  members  marry  as  heedlessly  and  headlessly  as  the  people.  Few 
members  of  it  dare  enter  a  family  and  warn  young  couples,  intend- 
ing to  marry,  of  their  duties  and  the  dangers  to  which  they  are  un- 


438  THE  MEANS  OF  PREVENTION. 

questionably  going  to  subject  their  children.  Were  children  not 
the  result  of  marriage,  it  would  then  make  no  difference.  The 
Church  '•'  Out-Herods  Herod."  Her  ministers  neither  set  a  becom- 
ing example,  nor  do  they  warn,  as  prophets  of  the  true  God,  the 
people  of  their  duties  in  this  regard. 

The  purpose  of  marriage  (natural)  is  to  produce  children.  "  So 
God  created  man  in  his  own  image,  in  the  image  of  God  created  he 
him ;  male  and  female  created  he  them." 

"  And  God  blessed  them,  and  God  said  unto  them.  Be  fruitful, 
and  multiply,  and  replenish  the  earth."  * 

The  science  of  parentage  is  an  undeveloped  branch  of  universal 
science.  It  is  still  awaiting  the  appearance  of  its  first  prophet.  Its 
primers  are  as  yet  unwritten.  Man  scarcely  knows  the  meaning  of 
the  first  letter  of  its  alphabet.  It  is  the  science  par  excellence.  All 
others  sink  into  insignificance  in  comparison  with  it.  They  all 
form  but  stepping-stones  to  its  development.  Thousands  and  thou- 
sands of  years  old,  yet  cultivated  'man  does  not  know  enough  to 
marry.  The  real  duties  of  parentage  are  still  too  much  for  hu- 
manity to  bear  and  faithfully  carry  out. 

Physical  fitness  is  the  indispensable  necessity.  The  "  affinities" 
(an  inexact  term),  a  matter  of  secondary  importance.  Respect  for 
each  other's  intellectual  capabilities,  and  interest  in  the  life-work  of 
each  other,  is  a  far  better  foundation  for  a  true  marriage  than  the 
fancy  mistakenly  called  love,  which  now,  too  frequently,  leads  to 
it.  In  every  child,  soon  after  birth,  the  elements  of  these  charac- 
ter-centers in  the  brain  begin  to  assume  a  certain  fixity  of  form, 
which,  under  normal  conditions,  gradually  increase  with  the  years. 
This  fixity  in  the  elements  of  the  centers  referred  to  gives  occasion 
to  the  idiosyncratic  ability  of  the  individual.  This  point  is  the  pole, 
the  center  around  which  the  entire  personality  of  the  individual  is 
to  revolve  during  life.  Its  develojpment,  the  ultimo  of  the  science  of 
parentage.  The  study  of  it,  by  means  of  its  developing  phenomena, 
the  so-called  "  tastes "  of  the  child,  the  imperative  duty  of  every 
parent  and  every  teacher  of  youth.  It  is  the  ohjective  jpoint  upon 
which  each  parent  should  fix  his  or  her  attention  from  the  day  of 
birth  to  that  of  the  maturity  of  each  child.  It  is  the  magnetic  needle 
which  Nature  places  in  each  child  to  indicate  to  parents  the  course 
they  should  pursue  in  the  education  of  the  child.  The  development 
of  this  one  point  is  not,  however,  the  single  duty  of  parents  in  di- 
recting the  education  of  a  child ;  but,  like  a  skillful  general,  who 
supports  his  crack  corps  in  a  desperate  attack  with  all  his  other 

*  Gen.  i,  2*7,  28. 


A  NATIONAL  VETERINARY   SCHOOL.  439 

forces,  so  must  parents  support  this  special  brain,  intellectual  affinity 
of  a  child,  for  a  certain  occupation  in  life,  by  the  most  complete  and 
studied  education  in  other  branches,  so  that  in  every  way  its  strong- 
est point  is  ■well  supported  by  collateral  education.  Such  a  child  is 
well  fitted  to  fight  the  battle  for  existence  when  the  years  to  begin 
it  come  on.  Many  and  many  a  gifted  child  has  been  made  a  good- 
for-nothing  man,  "  a  rolling  stone,"  from  the  ignorance  or  stubborn- 
ness of  parents  who  had  not  sense  enough  to  know  their  duty,  but 
believed  in  the  doctrine,  which  has  cursed  more  men  than  it  has 
ever  blessed,  that  the  child  must  bend  to  the  will  of  the  parents. 
A  one-sided  education  is  a  poor  thing.  It  too  frequently  leaves  the 
unfortunate  man  deeply  buried  in  the  "  slough  of  despond."  This 
most  earnest  study  of  the  developing  characteristics  of  a  child  is  tho 
imperative  duty  of  parents.  The  child  is  not  the  property  of  the 
parents,  to  be  used  cither  as  a  toy,  an  ornament,  or  a  means  to  per- 
sonal gratification.  It  is  not  an  ohject  hclonging  to  pa^'cnt^  to  he 
bent  to  their  wiUs.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  a  tintst  received  from 
Nature  to  he  sacrcdhj  guarded.  It  is  an  i7idividual  ichose  develop- 
ing will  is  to  he  respected  as  its  peculiar  and  inherent  right,  hut 
which  is  also  to  he  studied,  directed,  and  the  lesson  of  self-control 
gradually  taught  if,  so  that  it  may  he  fitted  for  the  loork  of  life. 
Morals  are  not ''  gifts  from  God  " ;  they  are  the  results  of  experience. 
The  comprehension  of  right  can  only  develop  with  the  intellect,  and 
the  broader  the  latter  is  developed,  the  more  sharply  defined  its  action, 
the  more  exact  will  be  the  child's  idea  of  right.  Right  and  wrong 
are  at  first  in  no  way  moral  sentiments  to  the  child.  They  are  at 
first  founded  in  a  degree  of  fear  or  love  of  parents ;  and  the  child's 
opposing  actions,  looked  upon  by  parents  too  frequently  as  the  re- 
sults of  ill-will,  are  but  the  gradually  developing  will,  individuality 
of  the  child,  coming  into  collision  with  the  wills,  it  should  be  with 
the  matured  judgment,  of  the  parents.  The  gradual  development 
of  this  will  in  a  proper  direction  is  the  highest  duty  of  parents.  It 
is  not  to  be  controlled  by  them,  but  directed.  The  child  is  to  learn 
that  the  will  of  its  parents — which  is  its  first  idea  of  moral  law — is 
to  be  followed  with  trust,  not  fear.  lie  is  to  learn  that  it  saves  him 
from  many  evil  consequences,  nntil,  by  the  development  of  his  own 
intellect,  he  becomes  gradually  able  to  distinguish  between  a  right 
and  a  wrong  peculiar  to  himself,  and  the  relation  of  his  own  organ- 
ism to  his  surroundings,  as  well  as  the  relation  of  each  part  to  the 
other  parts  of  which  it  is  made  np.  The  right  and  wrong  of  an  in- 
telligent and  developing  understanding  gradually  takes  the  place  of 
a  conflict  between — to  the  child — non-comprehended  forces  and  the 


440  THE  MEANS  OF  PREVENTION.- 

matured  understanding  of  the  parents.  The  aim  of  education  is  to 
prepare  the  child  so  that  it  7nay  take  care  of  itself  in  the  struggle 
for  existence.  This  axiom  answers  a  question  which  many  are  ask- 
ing, though  but  few  seem  able  to  answer.  How  many  children  may 
a  couple  generate  ?  The  answer  is,  No  more  than  their  means  will 
allow  them  to  fully  educate  for  this  struggle  for  existence.  Many 
persons,  who  unfortunately  marry  without  the  least  idea  of  their 
new  duties,  are  not  fitted  to  have  any  children.  Their  own  parents, 
having  been  unsuited  to  this  noblest  of  duties,  have  transmitted 
their  own  incapacity  to  their  children.  "  Yerily,  the  sins  of  the 
fathers  are  visited  upon  the  children"  in  more  ways  than  we  at 
present  are  aware  of. 

Education !  "What  is  it  ?  What  form  does  it  take  ?  In  my 
opinion,  education  has  three  forms.  First,  the  preparatory  educa- 
tion of  the  school  and  college  days.  Second,  the  so-called  "  cultiva- 
tion "  which  is  the  result  of  one's  general  reading.  Both  of  these 
forms  are  but  gleanings  from  the  work  of  others.  Third,  educa- 
tion proper,  or  that  which  the  individual  works  out  of  himself  hy 
reflection  upon  what  he  has  read,  observed,  and  heard.  It  will  be 
at  once  seen,  and  daily  experience  proves  it,  that  a  cultivated  man 
is  not  necessarily  an  educated  one ;  nor  is  every  educated  man  a  cul- 
tivated one,  although  this  exception  is  more  rarely  the  case  than 
the  former. 

We  often  read  in  the  daily  papers  that  the  public  schools  of  the 
present  day  are  too  nmch  inclined  to  develop  philosophers,  and  not 
enough  toward  practical  ends.  It  would  be  a  blessing  indeed  did 
they  seek  to  produce  good,  clear,  radical  (not  in  the  sense  of  igno- 
rant newspaper  writers)  thinkers.  A  philosopher  is  one  who  thinks 
deeply  upon  any  subject.  He  is  quite  frequently  found,  in  a  crude 
form,  shoveling  coal  or  pegging  shoes.  The  polished  form  sits  often- 
er  in  the  professor's  chair.  The  diamond  is  frequently  spoiled  in 
the  polishing.  So  it  is  with  many  crude  but  sharp  thinkers.  When 
polished,  the  clearness  is  lost  behind  a  multitude  of  words.  Read- 
ing and  writing  by  no  means  constitute  an  education.  People  seem 
to  think  they  do,  however.  They  are  but  the  means.  Ability  to 
think  logically  is  the  attribute  of  an  educated  man.  A  foolish  per- 
son may  be  taught  to  read  and  write,  but  no  one  would  dare  say 
he  is  educated.  They  lack  the  one  pearl  of  price — the  ability  to 
think ;  but  the  capability  to  read  and  write  greatly  increases  tlie  re- 
flective abilities  of  an  otherwise  crude  thinker.  It  is  the  essential 
quality  failing  in  our  present  humanity.  The  occasional  individual 
thinks,  the  masses  never.     One  would  suppose,  judging  from  per- 


A  NATIONAL   VETERINARY  SCHOOL.  44I 

sonal  observation,  that  the  alnlity  to  tliiiik  must  have  been  one  of 
the  lost  arts.  Our  aim  should  be  to  create  gooil,  logical  thinkers — 
men  capable  of  observing  closely,  and  drawing  radical  conclusions. 
On  that  depends  not  only  their  individual  success,  but  the  advance- 
ment of  our  country  as  a  whole.  Let  us,  then,  all  do  our  j)(n't  in 
pushing  forward  such  a  work.  Among  other  things  to  this  pur- 
pose, none  is  more  needed  than  a  natumal  institute  for  the  scientific 
education  of  veterinarians  and  the  other  purposes  mentioned  in  this 
book. 


GEXERAL  i:^DEX. 


/I  PAGE 

AbejTTtus 223 

A  national  veterinary  institute 390,  419 

A  national  veterinary  police  syjitcm 8C7 

Agriculture,  report  of  the  Commissioner 

ot 209 

Albert,  observations  on  tuberculosis  in 

cattle C7 

American  Government  on  tricbiniasia. . .  19 
American  pork,  microscopic  examination 

of 20 

more  trichinous  than  European 26 

Anthrax 103,843,  851 

history  of 103 

etiology  of 106 

nature  of  inficiens 103 

outbreak  and  extension  of Ill 

phenomena  ot 112 

patholo)fical  anatomy  of 113 

prognosis 115 

diagnosis 115 

prevention 116 

treatment 117 

immunity  from 117 

in  man 121 

cause  of,  in  man 121 

symptoms  and  course 122 

treatment  of 1 24 

Anthracoid  disea'^es 124 

Appeal  to  the  citizens  of  Pennsylvanui..  4'">5 

Arjans,  respect  for  animal  life  by  the. . .  211 

Aristotle,  views  of,  on  animal  diseases  .  222 

Austria,  the  veterinary  school  of 280 

B 

Bacillus  suis 42 

Bacteria 79 

Lecuwenhock  on 79 

classification  of. 80 

Mailer  on SO 

Ehrenberg  on 80 

Ilacckel  on 80 

Davalne  and  others  on 80 


PAGE 

Bacteria,  distinction  from  inorganic  sub- 
stances    84 

development  of. 85 

dissemination  of 66 

nutrition  and  respiration  of S6 

cultivation  of. S7 

reproduction  of. 88 

action  of 89,  94 

Bates,  on  cattle-diseases  in   Britain  in 

1714 260 

Berlin,  veterinary  school  at 322 

students  at  the 333 

regulation-s  at  the 334 

horse-abattoir  at 155 

Board  of  health,  work  of  a  nati<inal 386 

Bollinger,  on  trichina?  in  American  pork..  27 

micrococci  in  hog-cholera 41 

on  foot-and-mouth  disease 55 

on  bovine  tuberculosis 05 

on  antlirax Ill 

on  rabies 141 

on  chronic  pulmonarj' glanders . .  166,  188 

Boerhaavo 212 

Bojanus 314 

Bourgolat,  Claude 265 

Bowditch,  on  trichinaj 40 

on  tuberculosis fi'l 

Brauell,  on  anthrax 104 

Brown,  Sir  Charles,  on  animal  hospitals 

in  India 264 

C 

Cattle,  diseases  of 62 

Cato,  Marcus  Portias 229 

Chaliert,  on  anthrax I'H 

Cbaraka,  on  the  me<lical  student 213 

Chicago  Academy  of  Sciences,  on  trichi- 

niD 120 

Cholera,  hog 41 

cause  of. 41 

Roellon 42 

Spinola  on 42 


44:4 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


PAGE 

Cholera,  hog,  virulence  of. 43 

influences  of  season  and  temperature 

on 44 

period  of  incubation  of 44 

symptoms  of 44 

pathological  anatomy  of. 47 

microscopic  observations  in 48 

diagnosis  of 49 

prognosis  in 49 

treatment  of. 50 

prevention  of 50 

losses  from,  in  the  United  States 877 

Clater,  on  inoculation  in  pleuro-pneumo- 

nia 372 

Cobbold,  on  trichina 3 

Cohn,  cultivation-fluid  of 87 

Columella,  on  contagium  vivum 79 

work  of 230 

Commission  to  prevent  animal  diseases. .  383 

Constantine,  Emperor,  work  of. 232 

Corlies,  J.  C,  letter  on  pleuro-pneumo- 

nia 374 

D 

Damman,  on  trichinae 12 

Davaine,  on  anthrax 105 

Description  of  trichinae 5 

Desmobacteria 83 

Decroix,  on  hippophagy 154 

Detmers,  on  hog- cholera 41 

Delafond,  on  anthrax 104 

Diseases  of  cattle 52 

Disinfection 364 

Dog,  the  diseases  of  the 137 

Dupuy,  Alexis  C 269 

E 

Education,  first  principles  of 433 

Emphysema  infectiosum 125 

Epidemics  of  trichiniasis 36 

Eulenburg,  trichinae  in  Prussian  pork. . .     16 
Ewart,  etiology  of  anthrax 109 

Feser,  Professor,  on  emphysema  infec- 
tiosum   125 

Munich  veterinary  school 308 

Fiedler,  on  trichinae 40 

Fleming,  George,  on  foot-and-mouth  dis- 
ease       54 

on  losses  from  animal  diseases  in  Eng- 
land   376 

on  hydrophobia 144 

on  glanders 162 

on  British  veterinary  schools 403 

Foot-and-mouth  disease,  the. ...  54,  347,  353 

France,  veterinary  schools  of 204 

Flirstenberg,  on  milk  analysis 56 


PAGE 

G 

Gadsden,  Dr.,  on  glanders 176 

Galen,  views  of 228 

Gamgee,  John,  on  Texas  fever 130 

on  pleuro-pneumonia  m  England 376 

Gerlach,  Professor,  life  of 324 

on  trichinae 9,  29 

on  glanders 163,  188,  190 

on  tuberculosis 62 

Germer,  Dr.,  on  trichiniasis  at  Erie,  Pa.     37 

Germany,  rinderpest  in 344 

Glanders 159,  348,  357 

Eufus  on 160 

Euini  on 160 

Winter  von  Adlers  Flugel  on 160 

Lafosse,  on 161 

Fleming,  on 161 

Gerlach,  on 163 

Koell,  on 164 

Leisering,  on 164 

chronic.  Case  1 165 

chronic.  Case  II 167 

transmission  to  other  animals 169 

geographical  distribution  of 169 

in  the  Franco-Prussian  War 170 

in  Hungarj' 170 

report  of  Massachusetts  Cattle  Commis- 
sion on 170 

letter  of  Dr.  Lyman  on 170 

letter  of  Massachusetts  Society  for  the 
Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals  on.  173 

letter  of  Dr.  Liautard  on 174 

letter  of  Dr.  Gadsden  on 176 

etiology  of 178 

experiments  with  the  blood  in 182 

tenacity  of  the  contagium  in 183 

natural  infection  in 183 

disposition  to 184 

immunity  from 184 

phenomena  of 185 

incubation  in 185 

duration  of. 185 

acute  nasal 185 

pulmonary 187 

Bollinger,  on  pulmonary  glanders 188 

pathological  anatomy  of. 189 

tubercle  in 192 

infiltrations  in 196 

gelatinous  mfiltrations  in 197 

diagnosis  of 202 

prevention  of 202 

prognosis  in 202 

in  man 204 

etiology  of ,  .   204 

acute,  in  man 206 

chronic,  in  man 207 

Gurlt,  Professor,  work  of 322 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


445 


PAGB 

n 

Ilaubner,  trephining  sinusce  of  head  in 

glanders 166 

IliiUer,  work  of 249 

on  pleuro-pneumonia 250 

IIiinovtT,  the  school  ut 804 

JIar\-ard  Veterinary  School 4'H,  410 

Havcmann,  on  the  French  schools 868 

llorinif,  work  of. 803 

Hermann,  on  rabies 142 

Hortwip,  I'rofessor,  on  foot-and-mouth 

disease 55 

work  of. 323 

Ilertwijf,  Dr.    Hugo,    horse-abattoir  at 

Berlin 155 

Herr,  on  trichiniasis 17 

IJeusin^jer,  on  anthra.\ 104 

Ililler,  on  trichinia-sLs 3 

Hilton,  on  trichiniasis 3 

Hippiatrique,  Cours  d' 161 

Hippocrates,  views  of 220 

the  veterinarian 228 

Hippophaej- 153 

Hidtorj-,  the,  of  veterinary  medicine  ....  209 

Horse,  the 153 

planders  in 159 

Hospitals,  animal,  in  India 263,  264 

I 

Incubation,  period  of,  in  hog-cholera 45 

Infection 74 

Inoculation  for  pleuro-pneumonia 372 

K 

Kerstinjr,  Johann  Adam,  work  of. 304 

Klink,  quicksilver  in  milk 60 

Klopsch,  trichiniasis 11 

Krabbe,  glanders  on  the  Island  of  Bom- 
holm  179 

Kramer,  trichiniasis 9 

L 
Lafosae,  flls,  on  glanders 161 

work  of. \>:i$ 

Lafosso,  the  father 237 

Lancbi,  on  the  cattle-plapuo 243 

Law,  James,  on  hotr-cholera 41,  48,  60 

Leidy,  on  trichiniasis 8 

Lcuckart,  on  trichiniasis lo,  30 

Leiscring,  on  tricbininsts 29 

on  glanders 164 

Lesson  tauffht  by  the  medical  institutions 
of  the  United  States 402,  403 

European  vctcrinarj-  .ichools 403 

Letter  on  Harvard  Veterinary  School...  410 
Liautard,  Dr.,  on  glanders  in  New  York.  174 

on  inoculation  in  pleuro-pneumonia. . .  872 


PACK 

Loring,  Dr.,  on  trichinse 18 

Lyman,  Dr.,  on  glanders  at  Springfield, 
Ma-sa 170 

M 

Man,  ^'hinders  in 204 

Manu,  laws  of. 216 

Massachu-setts,  report  of  Board  of  Health, 

on  tricliiniiwis 20 

statute  for  the  incorporation  of  medi- 
cal schools 397 

Mayer,  cultivating  fluid  of 67 

Maladie  du  coit 34S 

Medical  schools  in  the  United  States 893 

Medicine,  regulating  the  practice  of 899 

Microbacteria 88 

Milk,  analysis  of 57 

Microscopic,  the,  examination  of  pork. . .  82 
Morley,  John,  on  tlie  murnun  in  Britain 

in  1717 861 

Mueller,  Professor,  trichinae  in  American 

hogs  in  Germany 18 

Mueller,  Dr.,  on  tuberculosis 61 

Munich,  the  veterinary  schofjl  at 808 

N 

Naegcli,  on  bacteria . .     81 

on  disinfection 102 

0 
Objects  which  may  bo  mistaken  for  tri- 
chiniE 85 

P 

Paracelsus 242 

Pasteur,  cultivating  fluid  of 87 

Pasteur,  on  inoculation 119 

Payne,  Dr.  J.  T.,  on  trichiniasis 24 

Pennsylvania,  appeal  to  tlie  citizens  of. .  405 

Philadelphia,  vetcrinarj'  school  at 404 

Pleum-pnoutnonia,  views  of  Haller 250 

views  of  Professor  Putz 259 

inoculation  to  prevent 372 

laws  to  prevent 348,  355 

Pollender,  on  anthrax 104 

Police  system,  a  national  veterinary 867 

Prevention,  the  means  of 867 

Prussia,  the  veterinary  institutions  of. . .  821 
laws  for  the  suppression  of  animal  dis- 
ease*   840 

Purpura  in  the  horw) 125 

R 

Rabies  in  the  dog 139 

in  Franco 142 

phenomena  of 148 

prevention  of 1.52 

laws  with  reference  to 34S,  361 


446 


GENERAL  IXDEX. 


Eauch,  on  trichiniasis 10 

Eats,  trichinse  in 30 

Eegulating  the  practice  of  medicine 399 

Eeich,  tubercular  meningitis  in  children.  66 
Eeport  of  the  government  of  New  Jersey 

on  pleuro-pneumonia 368 

Einderpest,  German  laws  for  its  preven- 
tion    341,  343,  344,  347 

Eoell,  on  glanders 164 

Euini,  on  glanders 160 

work  of. 236 

Eufus,  J.,  on  glanders 160 

work  of. 234 

S 

Scabies,  laws  to  prevent 348 

Schimmrng,  infection  of  the  blood  in 

glanders 182 

Schiitz,on  gelatinous  infiltration  in  gland- 
ers    197 

on  atelectasis 198 

Southern  hogs  free  from  trichinae 25 

Spinola,  on  hog-diseases 42 

Spherobacteria 81 

State  veterinary  schools 415 

Stuttgart,  veterinary  school  at 299 

Susruta,  the  medical  student  described  by  215 

Sutton,  trichiniasis  at  Aurora,  Ind 37 

T 

Taenia  sagLnata 53 

echinococcus 157 

Texas  fever  of  cattle 129 

history  of 129 

definition  of. 130 

etiology  of 133 

stages  in 133 

phenomena  of 134 

pathological  anatomy 135 

microscopic  examinations  in 136 

prevention  of. 137 

Toulouse,  veterinary  school  at 269 

Trichiniasis  in  man  and  animals 2 

Trichinae  in  fat-tissue 7 

in  the  various, muscles 8 

intestinal 11 

dispersion  of. 13 

in  other  animals  than  the  hog 14 

in  swine 15 

European  hogs 15 

American  hogs  examined  in  Euiope  . .  17 

in  American  pork 20 

Trichiniasis,  the  disease  in  hogs 28 

the  disease  in  man 35 

symptoms 36 

BlackweU's  Island 37 

Erie,  Pa 37 

Brooklyn,  L.  1 37 


PAGE 

Trichiniasis,  the  disease  in  man,  Eoch- 

ester,  N.  Y 38 

Saxony,  Germany 38 

on  the  Jordan 39 

ruling  of  a  German  judge  with  refer- 
ence to 37 

Tubercle  in  glanders 192 

Tuberculosis 61 

statistics 61,  71,  73 

exjDeriments  with  reference  to 62 

Turner,  trichiniasis  in  Scotland 40 

V 

Varo,  on  contagiimi  vivum 70 

Variola  in  sheep,  laws  to  prevent 348,  360 

Valentine,  on  foot-and-mouth  disease. . .     55 

Vegetius 230 

Vesalius 242 

Veterinary  medicine,  history  of. 209 

Veterinary  schools,  the  establishment  of.  263 

of  France 264 

of  Austria 280 

of  Belgium 291 

of  Eussia 294 

of  Denmark 296 

of  Sweden 298 

of  Germany 299 

at  Stuttgart 299 

at  Hanover 304 

at  Munich 308 

of  Pra«sia 321 

of  Berlin : 321 

Veterinary  police  system,  a  national. . . .  367 

Veterinary  institute,  a  national 390 

Veterinary  schools  of  England 404 

at  Philadelphia '. 404 

at  Cambridge — Harvard 404 

State 415 

national 419 

course  of  study  at 436 

teachers  at 431 

students  at 433 

Virchow,  on  trichinae  in  man 11 

on  anthrax 104 

Virulence  of  virus  in  hog-cholera 43 

Voit,  Professor,  on  veterinary  schools. . .  319 

W 

"Wagner,  on  trichiniasLs 41 

Walz 300 

"Welsh,  Hon.  J.,  on  veterinary  schools  . .  405 
"VN'iater  von  Adlers  Flugel,  on  glanders  .  160 

"Wise,  medicine  in  India 218,  263 

"Wolstein,  J.  G 281 

"Wortahet,  trichiniasis  on  the  Jordan ....     39 

Z 

Zenker,  trichiniasis ._^ 10,  35 


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features.  Whatever  tests  of  accuracy  as  to  figures  and  facts  we  have  been  able  to  apply 
have  been  satisfactorily  met,  while  in  clearness  of  statement  this  volume  leaves  nothing 
to  be  desired.  Moreover,  it  is  mo.st  satisfactory  to  find  that  the  progress  of  this  valu- 
able work  toward  completion  is  so  rapid  that  its  beginning  will  not  have  become  anti- 
cpiated  before  its  end  has  been  reached — no  uncommon  occurrence  with  elaborate  treatises 
OH  natural  science  subjects." — London  Academy. 

"  The  authors  are  evidently  bent  on  making  their  book  the  finest  systematic  treatise 
on  m«Klem  chemistry  in  the  Knglish  language,  an  aim  in  which  they  are  well  seconded  by 
their  publishers,  who  spare  neither  pains  nor  cost  in  illustrating  and  otherwise  getting 
forth  the  work  of  these  distinguished  chemists.'' — Lnndon  Afhcia-um. 

"It  has  been  the  aim  of  the  authors,  in  writing  their  present  treatise,  to  place  before 
the  reader  a  fairly  complete  and  yet  a  clear  and  succinct  statement  of  the  fads  ot  .Mod- 
em Chemistry,  while  at  the  same  time  entering  so  far  into  a  discussion  of  chemical  theorv 
as  the  size  of  the  work  and  the  present  transition  state  of  the  science  will  permit. 

"Special  attention  has  been  paitl  to  the  accurate  description  of  the  more  important 
proi'esses  in  technical  chemistry,  and  to  the  careful  representation  of  the  most  ap|)roved 
tDrms  of  ap|iarattis  employed. 

"  Much  attention  has  likewise  been  given  to  the  representation  of  apparatus  adopted 
for  lecture-room  experiment,  and  the  numerous  new  illustrations  required  for  this  pur- 
pose hare  all  been  taken  from  photographs  of  apparatus  actually  in  use." — Kxiract  from 
J'Tf/aCf. 

The  above  will  bo  -.  nt  liy  mail,  post-paid,  to  anj  address  in  the  United  States,  upon 
receipt  of  price. 

Xew  York:    D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  1,  3,  «fe  5  Bond  Street. 


BILLROTH'S 

General  Surgical  Pathology  and  Therapeutics, 

IN  FIFTY-ONE  LECTUKES. 

A  Text-hook  for  Students  and  Physieians. 
By  Dr.  THEODOR   BILLROTH, 

Professor  of  Surgery  in  Vienna. 

Translated  from  the  fourth  German  edition  with  the  special  permission  of  the  author, 
and  revised  fvm  the  eighth  edition, 

By  CHARLES  E.   HACKLE Y,  A.  M.,  M.  D., 

Physician  to  the  New  York  Hospital,  Fellow  of  the  New  York  Academy  of  Medicine. 


1  vol.,  8vo,  773  pages.    Cloth,  $5.00 ;  sheep,  $6.00. 


"The  want  of  a  book  in  the  English  language,  presenting  in  a  concise  form  the 
views  of  the  German  pathologists,  has  long  been  felt ;  and  we  venture  to  say  no  book 
could  more  perfectly  supply  that  want  than  the  present  volume." — The  Lancet. 

"Since  this  translation  was  revised  from  the  sixth  German  edition  in  1874,  two  other 
editions  have  been  published.  The  present  revision  is  made  to  correspond  to  the  eighth 
German  edition. 

"  Lister's  method  of  antiseptic  treatment  is  referred  to  in  various  places,  and  other 
new  points  that  have  come  up  within  a  few  years  are  discussed. 

"  A  chapter  has  been  written  on  amputation  and  resection.  In  all,  there  are  seventy- 
four  additional  pages,  with  a  number  of  woodcuts." — Extract  from  Translator's  Preface 
to  the  Revised  Edition. 


Text-book  of  Human  Physiology, 


DESIONED  FOR  THE  USE  OF 


Practitioners  and  Students  of  Medicine. 
By  AUSTIN   FLINT,  Jr.,  M.  D., 

Professor  of  Physiology  and  Physioloijical  Anatomy  in  the  Bellevue  Hospital  Medical  College, 
New  York ;  Fellow  of  the  New  York  Academy  of  Medicine,  etc. 

Jn  one  large  octavo  volume  of  f)1%  pages,  elegantly  printed  on  fine  paper,  and 

profusely  illustrated  with   Three  Lithographic  Plates  and 

313  Engravings  on  Wood. 

Third  edition,  revised  and  corrected.    Price,  in  cloth,  $6.00;  leather,  S7.00. 


For  sale  by  all  booksellers  ;   or  sent  by  mail,  post-paid,  .on  receipt  of  price. 


New  York :  D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  1,  3,  &  5  Bond  Street. 


THE  APPLIED  AJs^ATOMY  OF  THE 

NERVOUS  SYSTEM  ;  ])eiiig  a  Study  of  tliis  Portion 
of  the  Human  Body  from  a  Stjmd-point  of  its  General 
Interest  and  Practical  Utility,  designed  for  Use  as  a 
Text-Book  and  as  a  Work  of  Reference. 

By  AMBROSE  L.  RANNEY,  A.  M.,  M.  D., 

Adjunct  Professor  of  Anatoiuy  and  late  Lecturer  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Genito-Urinary 

Organs  and  on  Minor  Surgery  in  the  Medical  Department  of  the 

University  of  the  City  of  New  York,  etc.,  etc. 

8vo.     Trofusely  illustrated.     Cloth,  $4.00  ;  sheep,  $5.00. 

'•  This  is  a  useful  book,  and  one  of  novel  desipn.  It  is  especiiiUy  valuable  as  brinpinjf 
tojrether  facts  and  inferences  which  aid  wreath'  in  fomiing  correct  diagnoses  in  imrvous  dis- 
eases."— Boston  Medico/  and  Siinjical  Jouriiai. 

"  This  is  an  excellent  work,  timely,  practical,  and  well  executed.  It  is  safe  to  say  that, 
besides  Hammond's  work,  no  D(X>k  relating  to  the  ner\'ous  system  has  hitherto  been  pub- 
lished in  this  country  equal  to  the  present  volume,  and  nothing  superior  to  it  is  accessible  to 
the  American  practitioner." — ifedtcal  Herald. 

"  There  are  manv  books,  to  be  sure,  which  contain  here  and  there  hints  in  this  field  of 
great  value  to  the  p"liysiciaii,  but  it  is  Dr.  Kanney's  merit  to  have  collected  those  scaltered 
items  of  interest,  and' to  have  woven  them  into  un  harmonious  whole,  thcrebv  producing  a 
work  of  wide  8Coi>e  and  of  correspondingly  wide  usefulness  to  the  practicing  pnvsiciun. 

"The  book,  it  will  Ix;  perceived,  Is  of  an  eminently  practical  character,  and,  as  8uch,  is 
addressed  to  tho.-K!  who  can  not  atford  the  time  for  the'porusal  of  the  larger  text-books,  and 
who  must  read  as  they  run." — Xew  Tori:  Medical  Journal. 

"  Profi'ssors  of  anatomy  in  schools  and  colleges  can  not  afford  to  be  without  it.  We  rec- 
ommend the  book  to  practitioners  and  students  as  well." —  Virginia  Medical  Monthly. 

"  It  is  an  admitted  fact  that  the  subject  treated  of  in  this  work  is  one  sufficiently  obscure 
to  the  ppifession  generally  to  make  any  work  tending  to  elucidation  most  welcome. 

"  We  earnestly  recommend  this  work  as  one  unusually  worthy  of  study."— -ff'//«/o  Medi- 
cal and  Surgical  Journal. 

"  A  useful  and  attractive  book,  suited  to  the  time." — Louisville  Medical  A'cicg. 

"  Dr.  Ranney  has  firmly  grasped  the  essential  features  of  the  results  of  tlie  latest  study  of 
the  ner\-ous  system.  Ilia  work  will  do  much  toward  popukrizing  this  study  in  the  profes- 
sion. 

"  Wc  are  sure  that  all  our  readers  will  be  quite  as  much  pleased  as  ourselves  by  its  careful 
study." — Detroit  L-incet. 

"  Our  impressions  of  this  work  are  highly  favorable  as  regards  its  practical  value  to  stu- 
dents, as  well  as  to  educated  medical  men." — Pacific  Medioit and  Surgical  Journal. 

"  The  work  shows  great  care  in  its  preparation.  Wc  predict  for  it  a  large  sale  among  the 
more  progressive  practitioners." — Michigan  Medical  Aewt. 

"  We  arc  ao^uaintcd  with  no  recent  work  which  deals  with  the  subject  so  thoroughly  at 
this;  hence,  it  should  commend  itself  to  a  large  class  of  persons,  not  merely  specialists,  bus 
tho(»<«\\ho  a.-'pire  to  keep  posted  in  all  important  advances  in  the  science  and  art  of  modi- 
cine." — Mart/I'll^  Medical  Journal. 

"  This  work  was  originally  addres-sed  to  medical  under-graduntes,  but  it  will  be  equally 
interesting  and  valuable  to  medical  practitioners  who  still  acknowledge  themselves  to  bo 
BtudcnU.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  their  numlxjr  is  not  small." — A>u>  Orltans  Medical  and 
!iurgi<-'il  Journal. 

"  We  think  the  author  has  correctly  estimated  the  necessity  for  such  a  volume,  and  we 
congratulate  him  upon  the  manner  in  which  he  has  executed  his  task. 

"  As  a  companion  volume  t-^  the  recent  works  on  the  diseases  of  the  nervous  system,  it  is 
issued  in  good  time." — Xorth  Carolina  Medical  Journal. 

"  Dr.  Rannev  has  done  his  work  well,  and  given  accurate  information  in  a  simple,  road- 
able  style." — Philadelphia  Medical  Times. 


New  York :   D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  1,  3,  &  5  Bond  Street. 


THE  ANATOMY  OF  VERTEBRATED 

ANIMALS. 

By  THOMAS  HENRY  HUXLEY,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S. 
l.vol.,  12mo.     Illustrated.     431  pages.     Cloth,  $2.50. 

"  The  present  work  is  intended  to  provide  students  of  comparative  anatomy  Avith  a  con- 
densed statement  of  the  most  important  facts  relating  to  the  structure  of  vertebrated  animals 
which  have  hitherto  been  a-scertained.  The  Vertebrata  are  distinguished  from  all  other  ani- 
mals by  the  circumstance  that  a  transverse  and  vertical  section  of  the  body  exhibits  two 
cavities  completely  separated  from  one  another  by  a  partition.  The  dorsal  cavity  contains 
the  cerebro-spinai  nervous  system  ;  the  ventral,  the  alunentary  canal,  the  heart,  and  usually 
a  double  chain  of  gan^^liaj  which  passes  under  the  name  of  the  '  sympathetic'  It  is  prob- 
able that  this  synipathetic  nervous  system  represesents,  wholly  or  partially,  the  principal 
nervous  system  of  the  Aiiiutlosa  and  MoUusca.  And,  in  any  case,  the  central  parts  of  the 
cerebro-spinai  nervous  system,  viz.,  the  brain  and  the  spinal  cord,  would  appear  to  be  un- 
represented among  invertebratod  animals." — The  Author. 

"  This  long-expected  work  will  be  cordially  welcomed  by  all  students  and  teachers  of 
Comparative  Anatomy  as  a  compendious,  reliable,  and,  notwithstanding  its  small  dimen- 
sions, most  comprehensive  guide  on  the  subject  of  which  it  treats.  To  praise  or  to  criticise 
the  work  of  so  accomplished  a  master  of  his  favorite  science  would  be  equally  out  of  place. 
It  is  enouirh  to  say  that  it  realizes,  in  a  remarkable  degree,  the  anticipations  which  have  been 
formed  of  it ;  and  that  it  presents  an  extraordinary  combination  of  wide,  general  views,  with 
the  clear,  accurate,  and  succinct  statement  of  a  prodigious  number  of  individual  facts." — 
I^ature. 

THE  ANATOMY  OF  INVERTEBRA- 

TED  ANIMALS. 

By  THOMAS  HENRY  HUXLEY,  LL.  D  ,  F.  R.  S. 

1  vol.,  12mo.     Illustrated.     596  pages.     Cloth,  $2.50. 

"My  object  in  writing  the  book  has  been  to  make  it  useful  to  those  who  wish  to  become 
acquainted  witli  the  broad  outlines  of  what  Ls  at  present  known  of  the  morphology  of  the 
lurertebrata ;  though  I  have  not  avoided  the  incidental  mention  of  facts  connected  with 
their  physiology  and  their  distribution.  On  the  other  handj  I  have  abstained  from  discuss- 
ing questions  of  etiology,  not  because  I  maderestimate  their  importance,  or  am  insensible 
to  the  interest  of  the  great  problem  of  evolution,  but  because,  to  my  mind,  the  growing 
tendency  to  mix  up  etioloj;ieal  speculations  with  morphological  generalizations  will,  if  un- 
checked", throw  biology  into  confusion." — From  Preface. 


THE  COMPARATIVE  ANATOMY  OF 

THE  DOMESTICATED  ANIMALS. 

By  A.  CHAUVEAU, 

Professor  at  the  Lyons  Veterinary  School. 

Second  edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  with  the  co-operation  of  S.  Arloisg,  late 
Principal  of  Anatomy  at  the  Lyons  Veterinary  School ;  Professor  at  the  Toulouse 
Veterinary  School.  Translated  and  edited  by  George  Fleming,  F.  R.  G.  S.,  M.  A.  I., 
Veterinary  Surgeon,  Royal  Engineers. 

1  vol.,  8vo,  957  pages.     "With  450  Illustrations.     Cloth,  $6.00. 

"  Taking  it  altogether,  the  book  is  a  very  welcome  addition  to  English  literature,  and 
great  credit  is  due  to  Mr.  Fleming  for  the  excellence  of  the  translation,  and  the  many  addi- 
tional notes  he  has  appended  to  Chauveau's  treatise." — Lancet  (London). 

"The  descriptions  of  the  text  are  illustrated  and  assisted  by  no  less  than  450  excellent 
woodcuts.  In  a  work  which  ranges  over  so  vast  a  field  of  anatomical  detail  and  description, 
it  is  difficult  to  select  any  one  portion  for  review,  but  our  examination  of  it  enables  us  to 
speak  in  high  terms  of  its  general  excellence.  .  .  ." — Medical  Times  and  Gazette  {London). 


New  York:    D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  1,  3,  &  5  Bond  Street. 


\ 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

BIOLOGY  LIBRARY 

TEL.  NO.  642-2531 

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on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 

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